Politeness Marking and Terms in the Korean Language

Politeness Marking and Terms in the Korean Language

Introduction

Throughout human existence, communication has remained an indispensable compartment of human life. The concept has allowed the exchange of information and thoughts between people via an agreed method, with language emerging as a premium channel for human communication. In communication, one of the factors responsible for facilitating smooth conversation is politeness. Politeness is adept at elating language to various dimensions of behavioral ethics and social structure. Despite differences amongst cultures, politeness possesses some universally agreed characteristics such as saving face, avoiding conflict, ensuring cooperative interaction, and showing deference. Nonetheless, polite behavior and expectations differ amongst cultures, which has prompted scholars to refine the concept of civility using values. Similar to many Asian cultures, Korean culture and language are highly collectivist and hierarchical, with politeness marking and terms highly characterized by honorifics, as a means of showing deference amongst interlocutors.

Politeness in the Korean Language

Honorifics

In this regard, one needs to understand that Korean culture is highly communal, emotional, formal, and hierarchical, and rational. In the nation, the power possessed by an individual remains indispensable in interpersonal communications and interactions owing to the hierarchical structure of society. The socio-cultural elements, like age, gender, kinship, social power, occupation, and social status, play crucial roles in interactions, and this aspect is revealed in how Koreans use their language. Therefore, the realization of language politeness remains contingent on the association or relationship between the communicating parties. Kim (2011) agrees that Koreans see politeness as a concept closely related to a linguistic entity called honorifics, which is a system that communicates respect and reverence towards interlocutors through the choice of language. Honorifics are prevalent in the Korean language as communication is highly influenced by social standing and age, which implies that politeness is employed reverently or differentially, with these seen in language usage (Song, 2012).

Two kinds of politeness are employed in language use, strategic politeness, and discernment politeness. The former is employed when politeness expressions change depending on various circumstances, while the latter is a fixated or unidirectional means of expressing politeness. In Korea, since the communication focus changes according to the status of interacting parties, discernment politeness is usually employed rather than strategic politeness that seeks to communicate a message directly. The politeness system in the Korean language is a kind of discernment since it focuses mainly on honorifics and formality in verbal communication. The latter is about the social or psychological distance between communicating parties while the former is about demonstrating respect during communication. Highly elaborated honorifics are applied in the Korean politeness approach, which is done in different forms and parts of a sentence.

The honorifics are normally spread in a dispersed manner throughout the sentence at different levels and locales. The honorific system employs syntactic forms, including conditionals, questions, and negations, and also syntactic forms, to express reverence. Thus, the linguistic conventions and forms employed by Korean speakers are influenced by social factors, including gender, kinship, age, occupational rank, social status, and situation. Two salient features characterize Korean honorifics. First, Korean honorifics usually predicate a sentence because, without honorifics, no amount of variation in a sentence can meet the differential intention by the speaker. Social status or address is a vital consideration when deciding how to demonstrate politeness.

In a declarative sentence, the age, familiarity, or relative status determines whether to include honorifics in the sentence. Second, the Korean Honorific system comprises three components, namely honorific nouns, verbs, and suffixes. All three components must exist in a sentence for it to demonstrate politeness since when employed inappropriately, misunderstandings ensue, and the addressee may consider the speech sarcastic or impolite. As a result, both the speaker’s and addressee’s perspectives must be present in the structure of the sentence.

Rhetorical Strategies

Regarding rhetorical strategy, the culture of politeness in the Korean language is renowned for valuing indirectness, courtesy, modesty, and harmony. As noted by Kim (2011), implicitness and indirectness are two primary rhetorical characteristics employed in Korea. The latter is employed to depict politeness when making requests, as Koreans usually strive to minimize imposing a duty or task on an addressee to minimize emotional reactions. As a result, a request will be made indirectly, especially towards older people, individuals with higher social standing, or strangers. For instance, a Korean will employ a query-preparatory question such as “This room feels a little hot” when requesting an addressee to open the windows instead of “Hey, open the windows” as is common in western language.

Koreans seldom use direct commands when addressing each other or strangers. A direct request or imperative is employed only when the communication is carried for an addressee’s benefit, or conversation is directed towards a lower-status or younger addressee. However, an indirect request is used when the conversation seeks to benefit the speaker, or communication is directed towards a higher-status or older addressee. Kim (2011) notes that politeness in the Korean language is demonstrated rhetorically using hedges and syntactically applying negation and conditional and interrogative sentences. The longer a request, the more polite and indirect is the request as more hedges are used to construct the sentence structure. The application of interrogative sentences in making requests is becoming popular in the country, while the exclusion of the main clause is becoming a productive mechanism for relaying indirect speech. The main clause usually comprises the assertions of the speaker; thus, its exclusion provides the addressee the opportunity to make a final decision. As a result, Korean politeness remains a kind of discernment courtesy due to its reliance on determined linguistic and honorific forms.

Discernment is considered a set of socially agreed rules and regulations that operate regardless of the communicative objective of a speaker. Overall, discernment politeness is defined by examining the social connection between an addressee and a speaker since, in Korean culture, politeness is socially defined. Thus, the speaker’s extent of polite behavior is restricted and adheres to social expectations. Therefore, linguistic encoding prioritizes macro-social characteristics comprising both attributes such as age and gender and achieved social characteristics such as title and rank, among others. The linguistic encoding, including the application of honorifics, adheres to a set of social rules that the speaker can choose from based on the social characteristics of an addressee. In discernment politeness, the social power and position of an addressee remain the primary factor that determines the extent of politeness employed in communications. Consequently, an individual familiar with discernment politeness should employ various types of strategic politeness strategies such as the social status of an addressee and a formal speech strategy, as honorifics are commonplace.

Indirectness

Apart from using honorifics and rhetorical strategies to demonstrate politeness in conversation, the Korean language is also known for using indirectness to demonstrate politeness. An indirect speech act is universal as it maintains the intention of politeness in communication. The notions arise due to concerns about the addressee’s face, as it leaves the opportunity and freedom for an addressee to decide or act. As a result, the social distance and relative power between a speaker and an addressee are two factors that determine the extent of indirectness during conversations. Indirectness becomes greater with an increase in the social distance. In this case, the social power of the addressee decreases. Moreover, obliqueness also becomes greater in conversations between strangers and even in differential communications employed by people in lower ranks when communicating with superiors.

Three numerous indirect scales exist in the literature, which are “direct,” “conventionally indirect,” and “non-conventionally indirect” or “hints.” A direct speech act comprises syntactic imperatives, while a conventionally indirect speech act restrains a circumstantial condition with a syntactic narrative technique. However, a non-conventional speech act is an opaque strategy that actualizes a request by offering particle references to the object of a requesting speech act.

Honorifics and politeness in the Korean language. The honorific system in Korean culture acknowledges the social standing of the communicators based on the speaker or addressee or both. A speaker employs honorifics to indicate the social distance with a hearer or referent or both. A conventional rule of honorifics in Korean culture and language is to make one lower in a conversation. Even though a speaker cannot apply honorific types singlehandedly, one can use humble types to situate oneself in a lower status relative to the hearer. Thus, honorific markings are expressed as markers evident in verbs and verb forms, nominal suffixes, honorific particles, and honorific noun forms (Kim & Sells, 2007). The honorific system in Korean language comprises four vital elements, which are honorific particles, predicate endings, forms of address, and lexical markers.

Predicate Endings

Also known as hearer honorifics, predicate endings are usually considered speech levels in Korean linguistics. Predicate endings are seldom employed without knowledge of the social status or distance between the communicating parties. Six speech levels or predicate endings exist, and they are usually demonstrated by suffixes in adjectives and verbs. Four of the six levels are applied in modern Korean culture. They include differential, polite, intimate, and plain and end in pnita or supnita, -(a/e) yo, -a/e, and –ta, respectively (Brown, 2011). The differential and polite speech levels are grouped as honorifics, while the plain and intimate speech levels are grouped as non-honorific. The former are employed reciprocally and non-reciprocally amongst non-intimates and subordinates to seniors in terms of rank or age or both. The differential strategy usually uses strong statements supported by factual information normally in formal environments, including public speech, broadcasting, or conference presentations. Since the message relays formality, the majority of fixed and formulaic expressions employ differential speech (Song, 2012).

However, polite speech remains a largely informal form of honorific speech employed in relaying personal comments, common knowledge, and affect. The communication is normally applicable in almost any situation, be it in addressing seniors in a casual manner, daily conversations, or any other informal setting. Nevertheless, differential and polite speech levels may occur simultaneously. For instance, during a first encounter, communicating parties will most likely use differential speech, but following introductions and initial exchanges, subsequent conversations may use polite speech. Plain and intimate speech is non-honorific in nature. The latter is also is formed by dropping the –yo that is used to end the polite form and used reciprocally and non-reciprocally between similar and different age-rank communicators (Choo, 2008).

Plain speech level is direct and blunt compared to remaining speech levels and is employed in two different ways. First, the language is applied in written form for particular non-specific listeners and language forms when addressing hearers of a younger or similar age group. Moreover, plain speech is also used in expressing surprise or an event with the objective of drawing the hearer’s attention. Besides, the communication approach is also employed in reported speech, especially when a speaker wants to emphasize something or express a general exclamation (Kádár & Mills, 2011). Besides, a non-honorific speech level may be mixed with differential speech levels during conversations, becoming the highest speech level and most polite linguistic expression. The plain speech level is the lowest discourse category and the least polite linguistic expression.

Normally, communicators mix various speech levels even though a speaker may employ a particular language level for a specific situation, and switch to other levels in the same conversation. Nonetheless, the choice of one specific speech level is not forthright, as it is contingent on context, especially social relationships and the manner a speaker desires to express these relationships. Consequently, appropriate use of various speech levels and hearer honorifics is vital for initiating and sustaining conversational interactions when remaining attentive to saving face and interpersonal feelings.

Honorific Particles

The Korean language also has the ability to index reverence towards sentence referents in dative or subject position via the use of lexical choices, including honorific particles. For the subject particle, the honorific particle for the plain particle –i/ka is –kkeyse, while for the dative particle, the honorific particle for the plain particle –ieykey is –kkey (Brown & Yeon, 2015). A particle is a post-positional function word that is placed after a noun. The word differentiates a noun clause in terms of its grammatical case, marking the dative and the subject. For instance, sen sayng nim or teacher is a neutral noun, but sen saying nim-I illustrates the teacher’s role as a subject in the sentence. Honorific particles are of varied forms, but their functions in a sentence are similar. Even though the latter noun still means teacher, it implies that the sentence where it exists is an honorific sentence where the speaker is treating the addressee courteously.

Lexical markers and honorific nouns and verbs. In Korean linguistics, lexical markers are categorized into object and subject honorifics. A lexical marker indexes the relationships between speakers and referents, who may be either hearers or third parties. When a hearer whose age and rank is superior appears in a sentence subject position, the subject is indexed by placing an honorific marker –si- (Traugott & Dasher, 2001). Even though the marker possesses a functional load as it indexes subject honorifics, the stem is usually altered to a specific honorific form to particular expressions.

Honorific Verbs

Honorific Nouns

Plain

Honorific

Meaning

Plain

Honorific

Meaning

-si-

Ka-ta

Kasi-ta

To go

Pap

Cinci

Meal

Mek-ta

Mekusi-ta

To eat

Cip

Tayk

House

Change of stem + -si

Iss-ta

Kyeysi-ta

To be

(stay)

Mal

Malssum

words

Mek-ta

Capswusi-ta

To eat

Nai

Yensey

age

Humble verb forms

Cwu-ta

Tuli-ta

To give

Po-ta

Poyp-ta

To see, meet

First person pronouns and forms of address. In the Korean culture and language, various kinds of addresses in conversations index the social distance and relationship between interlocutors. The 1st person pronouns used by the speaker are humble honorific forms that place them in a lower position. The speakers use courteous and humble verbs and pronouns while referring to themselves to give them a lower standing in a conversation. The plain forms of “I’ and “we” are ce and cehi, respectively. Making choices between reference and address forms remains complex owing to restrictions placed on personal names and pronouns usage. Some pronouns that are restricted to people of lower social distance or superior people are ne, caney, tangsin, kutay, and caki, while personal names are also banned.

However, second language pronouns in the Korean language are not present in honorific communications, but are used in kinship terms, professional titles, and teknonymic items that are categorized into honorific and plain levels. Koreans are fond of using kinship terms for people who do not belong within the family setting, but in circumstances when a personal name is appropriate, is often complemented by a suffix -ssi or –a/-ya between intimates. Moreover, the speck levels in Korean are also closely associated with address terms. Address terms should be taught at an early age for them to facilitate understanding of hearer honorifics. In this manner, a speaker can strategically employ address terminologies in line with related honorifics to emerge as polite during conversations.

Politeness and Social Variables

In Korean culture, politeness remains closely intertwined with the desire of interlocutors to acknowledge and appreciate the social standing of hearers and speakers. Politeness strategies are shaped by relational status and cues, but they are not unchallengeable measures of social status. For instance, if an addressee is older than a speaker is, the latter can decide to transition into an intimate speech level, which is non-honorific in nature, to demonstrate closeness. In another instance, when an addressee angers a speaker, the latter can decide to transition to a polite or differential speech level to show some distance and significance of the issue under discussion despite closeness with the addressee.

In some instances, Korean speech styles shift and demonstrate the association between politeness and honorific forms. The discourse shows that the latter is not merely polite markers, as they can be employed strategically for varied purposes. Many speakers blend various speech levels in a single discourse and with similar addressees, but this is dependent on the circumstance and environment they want to create using communication. Consequently, the manner in which people converse remains intrinsically created to define and reflect social standing and demonstrate a sense of affairs among the interlocutors. Honorific expressions, particularly various speech levels, play critical roles in demonstrating the relationships between the speakers, which is one that links them together and allows interpretation of the conversation to acknowledge and understand the social context and social status of the conversation.

In this regard, linguistic forms in day-to-day communications normally incorporate different degrees of the social elements of speech-event participants and the association amongst them, and the possibility of impoliteness of a communicative act and the content of the message. The approach is a common framework for explaining the linguistic options and the notion of familiar (T form) and polite (V form) in the 2nd person pronoun. Here, power is defined as the extent of relative difference or superiority, which is constantly redefined in relation to the circumstance, while solidarity is the relative distance of intimacy between speakers that is the result of similarity or contact.

In Korean, power dynamics are evident in the non-reciprocal application of V forms, while solidarity is demonstrated when interlocutors communicate reciprocally with one another using either V form or T form. For instance, in the French language, traditionally, an elderly speaker may use the T form or V form tu and vous, respectively, toward an addressee of lower status, who can only use the latter and not the former towards the speaker. Moreover, different languages gauge solidarity in many ways. For example, in French, German, and Italian societies, family membership remains the single most element of solidarity. As a result, the T and V forms are honorifics as specific verb forms such as Korean linguistically acknowledge the power-solidarity semantics.

In this regard, Korean honorific variables can be categorized into two distinct groups, with one representing power while the other representing solidarity. The former group shows ascribe power such as age, gender, and kinship and achieve control, such as social status and occupational rank. However, the latter shows interpersonal solidarity such as in or out-group and intimacy and situational solidary that demonstrates casualness. However, Korean differs from Japanese since the social variables are ordered differently, with the former remaining sensitive to age while the latter remaining responsive to intimacy, social status, and group ownership. The choice of a speech level in Korean considers age differences, thus it is relatively static and direct, and since they have a rich vocabulary to choose from, a speaker can employ different speech levels according to the situation.

Social Factors and Varying Speech Levels

In Korea, the social factors that affect the choice of a particular speech level to use in communication include age, gender, the extent of intimacy, social status, family membership, speech context. However, no single variable influences the choice of a speech level independently. Instead, while one variable may be preferred over another in a specific situation, the others also play essential roles that shape the interaction between communicating parties when the speech situation and social context are considered. Furthermore, power-oriented social factors, particularly age and gender, can be prioritized over solidarity-oriented factors such as the extent of intimacy.

Age

Age is the main social factor that influences and shapes the choice of a speech level by Korean interlocutors. Depending on the age groups of the speaker and hearer, and the differences between their ages, the communicating parties usually use different levels of speech. Moreover, engagement with varying levels of speech is also influenced by age, as many Koreans begin engaging with honorifics and various speech levels, as young adults, especially those in the mid-20s. During this period, the speakers of this age group usually become part of family groups and workplaces characterized by hierarchical relationships that make the use of polite language indispensable. Nevertheless, age is not the only variable to consider when selecting the most appropriate speech levels, as intimacy may be preferred over age in speech level choice in close relationships. Besides, age becomes less significant in choosing a speech level when individuals become older; thus, situations where age may not be the foremost factor that influences speech levels to exist.

Gender

Gender is another essential factor that influences speech level choice, with the difference or sameness in gender remaining vital in this regard. For instance, if the communicating parties belong to the same social status and age, but the speaker is male, they will usually use a high speech level towards a male addressee. Moreover, female speakers often use a respectful speech level, a situation that exposes the inferior status of women in Korean society, unlike male speakers who use both differential and polite speech levels in conversations (Song, 2012).

Conclusion

Throughout the history of relationships between Asian and western cultures, competition and dominance have been the key to success in the global sphere. With the former remaining collectivist and hierarchical while the latter maintaining its individualistic nature, variations have emerged between these cultures. A notable area is in linguistics, as the Korean language continues to focus on honorifics while the west prioritizes non-honorific forms in communication. Therefore, understand language use among people is vital in acknowledging and appreciating the cultural differences that form the basis of linguistic expressions amongst cultures.