The Link between Gender and Jealousy

The Link between Gender and Jealousy

Abstract

Mindfulness is a common trait occurring in both genders. Numerous studies have been conducted on the influence that gender has on mindfulness among individuals. Most of the studies propose that either gender has higher levels of mindfulness than the other, while others suggest a similar degree of mindfulness in both. The minimal consensus and inconclusive results regarding the subject, therefore, necessitated an additional study on mindfulness among genders. The study involved 77 participants whose levels of mindfulness were gauged through the use of 15 hypothetical scenario questions using a self –Report Mindfulness Attention Awareness scale. Male participants scored a higher average mindfulness score in comparison to their female counterparts. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the two scores leading to the conclusion that gender was not a significant variable in determining mindfulness among individuals.

Keywords: gender, male, female, mindfulness

The Link between Gender and Mindfulness

Mindfulness refers to one’s capability to be present in the moment without succumbing to distractions about past or future events. It refers to being in the right headspace and not drifting away or being overwhelmed by the ongoings in the environment. Over time, numerous studies and research has been carried out to determine the use of gender as a variable in deciding mindfulness among humans. Research by  Alispahic & Hasanbegovic-Anic (2017) to assess the effect of gender and age on mindfulness in the Bosnian population revealed that there was a small but statistically significant difference in mindfulness between men and women. According to the research, men scored higher than men in the subscale of observing while women scored higher in acting with awareness subscale. This could be explained by the difference in cognitive functioning between men and women, with men being more attentive to detail while women are better at multi-tasking.

On the other hand, a comparative study by Rahaman (2015) on mindfulness between male and female university taekwondo players in India revealed that the genders did not differ significantly in mindfulness. However, women were found to be slightly better in mindfulness compared to their male counterparts. The closeness in the findings of the report can be explained by the fact that an equally clear self-perception and prompt awareness is required for those involved in the sport.

A study by Ahmadi, Mustaffa, Haghdoost, & Alavi (2014) on mindfulness and related factors among undergraduate students in the University of Technology in Malaysia revealed that there was no relationship between gender and the level of mindfulness. The study, however, may be biased in its findings on the gender variable due to the use of graduates as the sample size and the fact that the University of Technology, Malaysia, does not discriminate based on gender which often affects organizational mindfulness. However, the same cannot be said of the real world where gender bias is rife.

A study conducted by Kang et al. (2018), reveals that adolescent girls fare better than boys in regards to mindfulness training. According to the study, girls are more receptive to training on mindfulness than boys. A survey by Rojiani, Santoyo, Rahrig, Roth, & Britton (2017) revealed that mindfulness training helped women overcome negative emotions and moods but did not help that much in men. According to the study, more women than men engage in mindfulness as they derived more benefits from it. One comparison, men, obtain fewer benefits and are thus unlikely to participate in mindfulness training. Based on this, therefore, the research showed that women are more mindful than men as they train more and try to be in tune with their current state of mind as opposed to men.

According to Harvard Business Review (2016), women are more mindful than men and tend to practice it more often. Goldstein argues that men are not attracted to mindfulness because men are inherently wired to avoid vulnerability since such behavior is likely to portray them as weak. Mindfulness often encompasses warmth, tenderness, and gentleness if one is to be in tune with his or her experience, and very few men can do this. Women do this and, as a result, can harness benefits such as increased empathy and confidence.

Kabat-Zinn (2019) supports the sentiments that women are more mindful than men. According to Kabat-Zinn, women are more conscious and expressive of their emotions compared to men who are often unaware of their emotions. Women also enjoy engaging in conversation and keeping up with people, whereas men prefer engaging in physical conversations rather than conversations. The ability to remember people’s names and pay attention to tiny details is also exhibited more in women than it is in men.

Mindfulness is measured using different instruments, with the most commonly used being the mindfulness attention awareness scale. Other instruments include the five facet mindfulness questionnaire, Toronto mindfulness scale, and the Freiburg mindfulness inventory. The level of mindfulness can be manifested in the manner in which one goes about their activities. For instance, a person who pays close attention and is fully aware of what they are doing is said to be mindful. In contrast, those exhibiting attention deficit and memory lapses are often not mindful.

This study purposes to carry out an in depth analysis of gender as a variable in determining the degree of mindfulness. The study predicted that there would be no statistically significant difference in the degree of mindfulness among either gender. This is the null hypothesis in the study.

Method

Participants

There were a total of 77 participants in this study, with 49 identifying as female and 26 as females. The remaining two identify as other. All the responses except four were used in the analysis of data and results since they all provide the complete relevant information. The respondents ranged from a minimum of 17 years to a maximum of 6o years (M=23.5195, SD=6.99174). The ethnicities for the 77 participants are as shown below.

Despite the broad representation, there was inequality in the proportionate representation with Latinos almost accounting for half of the sample population at 45.5%, followed closely by multiracial ethnicities at 23.4%. In comparison, African Americans and whites each accounted for 11.7% of the population. The other ethnicities each accounted for less than 4% of the sample population.

Participants were treated in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct” (American Psychological Association, 2002).

Materials

The study adopted the mindfulness attention awareness scale in its self-report survey, which entailed a total of 15 questions. The first section is composed of 15 scenario questions that are meant to determine mindfulness among participants using the MAAS. In the second section, participants were required to provide information regarding their age and gender. The mindfulness scale will range from 1 to 6. One being the least mindful while six is the highest. The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was also required to analyze the responses once data collection was done.

Procedure

Approval for the study was provided by the institution’s review board, thus giving the researchers the go-ahead to conduct it. Participants signed up for the study on a list provided by the relevant school. First, they read a statement or informed consent document that notified them of the risks and benefits of taking part in the study. The paper also emphasized on their rights to withdraw from the study. They provided the consent to participate in the study by signing the consent form. Seventy-seven participants were provided with a self-report mindfulness-awareness scale. All respondents were required to fill the first section containing the 15 scenario questions, which they were to answer within five minutes using the provided scales 1-6. Upon completion of the survey,  participants were informed of its potential contribution to the future body of knowledge. The participants were required to answer the questions based on their experiences rather than based on what they thought to be the correct answer.

The data collected was statistically manipulated using the statistical package for the social sciences, commonly referred to as SPSS. It computed the mean, standard deviation, and t-ratios to determine the existence of a significant difference between the gender groups on the psychological parameters of mindfulness.

The research used an independent sample t-test to compare the mean scores for males and females on the variable of mindfulness. The independent t-test also called the student’s test, is an inferential statistical test conducted to determine the existence of a statistically significant difference between the means of two unrelated means. It shows whether the difference between the two means is statistically significant, presuming a good sample has been chosen. The null and alternative hypotheses form the basis of independent testing. The null hypothesis proposes that the population means for the two unrelated groups are equal. In the case of this case, the null hypothesis suggests that the mean male scores for mindfulness are equal to the mean scores of women for the same variable. The alternative, on the other hand, proposes that the means are not equal. In our case, the average male mean scores for mindfulness are not equal to the average female scores for the same variable. To run an independent t-test, one needs an independent categorical variable with two groups and a continuous dependent variable. In this study, the independent variable is gender with males and females as the two groups. The continuous dependent variable in this instance is the mindfulness measured by the mindfulness attention awareness scale. The goal of the research was to determine statistically significant difference in the degree of mindfulness among males and females.

To run the t-test, in SPSS, one clicks “Analyze”  then “compare means”  in the drop-down, which is then followed by the “independent samples T-Test.” One is then presented with the “independent –samples T-Test” dialogue box.

One is then supposed to transfer the dependent variable “MAAS” into the test variables box and transfer the independent variable “gender” to the grouping variable box. Afterward, one clicks the arrow icon under the grouping variable section and then the “define groups” where the relevant dialogue box pops up.

The dialogue box requires one to use specified values for group box one and group box 2. In this case, key in “1” into group box one and digit “2” into group box2. “1” is representative of the “Female” group while the “Male” group is represented by “2”.One is then supposed to click the continue button, after which they will be returned to the “independent-sample T-Test.” Then click the Ok button to generate the relevant data. The results generated by the SPSS software for this study are shown below.

Results

1. i) Descriptive statistics

Of the 77 participants in the study, 73 respondents provided valid scores (M=57.40, SD=10.88). This means that the average scores for the entire sample is 57.40, with a +/-10.88 deviation from the mean. Male participants scores averaged 60.38 with a standard deviation of 12.42 while female participants scores averaged 55.80 with a standard deviation of 9.69. This means that males generally have a higher level of mindfulness compared to females. However, the statistical significance is yet to be proved at this stage.

1. ii) Inferential statistics

A lot of information and details appear in the tables generated through SPSS. The first table is labeled the group statistics and provides information on the sample size, mean, standard deviation, and standard error resulting from the samples. The second table is the independent sample test used in determining whether or not to reject the null hypothesis. Since we are comparing two means, that is, the mean for males and females on gender mindfulness, two variances are generated.  In the independent t-test, it is assumed that the two variances are equal. Where this is not the case, this can affect the type of error rate. The assumption of homogeneity of variance can be determined using Levine’s test for the equality of variances. This test for equality of variances produces an F-statistic and a significance/p-value. If the significance level (P-value) generated by Levine’s test is above .05(p>.05), the group variances can be treated as equal. Therefore the top row (equal variances assumed) is used. In our case, the significance level /P value of Levine’s test is .193; hence the equal variances row is used. When Levine’s Test for equality of variances generates a significance level /P-value higher than .05, the null hypothesis holds, and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. In our case, since the “equal variance”   row is the one in use, the p-value is 0.081. This P-value is higher than the critical significance level of 0.05; therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no statistical difference between the two means is upheld. The difference in the level of mindfulness between and women was found to be statistically insignificant with an alpha level of .05 (t (73) =-1.767, p=.081 (two-tailed)).Therefore according to these results, gender is not a key variable in determining mindfulness among humans since there was no statistical difference in the male and female averages. An inspection into the mindfulness among genders revealed that mindfulness was typically distributed among the two groups, and variances were homogeneous as assessed by the Levine’s Test for equality of variances. Thus an independent t-test was conducted with a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference. It was determined that mindfulness scores among males (60.38 +/-12.42) was not significantly higher than mindfulness scores among females 55.80 +/-9.69).   Additionally, the 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference had a lower boundary of -9.76416 and an upper boundary of 0.58677, capturing neither of the means. There was no significant outcome, and the null hypothesis was upheld.

Discussion

From the above results, there was no significant difference in the levels of mindfulness between males and females. Although males averaged a higher mindfulness score (M=60.38) compared to their female counterparts (M=55.80), this was not statistically enough to support the conclusion that males display a higher level of mindfulness compared to females. The results from this study agree with some of the previous research on mindfulness among genders.

The study is generally credible as it paid attention to the ethical principles of research recommended by the American Psychological Association. For instance, the consent of participants was sought before the research, ensuring that it was voluntary. Additionally, the participants were given information regarding the research, ensuring that they made informed decisions regarding the study. Another strength of the study was the racial diversity of the sample involved as entailed seven ethnicities, thus providing a broad representation of the population. The two-point response scale (1=almost always, 6=almost never) with a degree of variance between one and six is also commendable as it resulted in credible results. The lowest level of mindfulness was ranked at one while the highest was ranked at six, giving participants a wide range to choose from, which increased the accuracy of responses. However, the scale can be improved by labeling the other numbers in between to enhance the clarity of the choices. For instance, labeling two as “slightly often” would make it more clear and understandable to respondents rather than leaving it blank. However, this study has limitations and therefore, cannot be deemed as conclusive in determining the difference in mindfulness among genders. For instance, the number of female participants (n1=49) was almost twice that of males (n2=26), which might have skewed the data leading to inconclusive results.

Additionally, the choice of gender was only limited to two options, thus leaving out people who identify with other genders, such as the inter-sex. Despite the differences in racial identity, most of the participants hail from a similar geographical area and, therefore, cannot be depicted as a representative of the entire world population. For instance, the responses from African America cannot be chosen as representative of the indigenous African communities. The sample chosen was also mainly composed of a student population; hence it might have been biased in questions that centered on work. Despite racial representation, almost half of the sample population were of Latino origin as they accounted for 45.5% of participants.

Therefore it is suggested that in future research, a more career diverse sample should be chosen to gather more varied responses on questions surrounding work. In future studies, it would also be more prudent to use a more significant sample of the global population to obtain results that accurately depict gender mindfulness on a global scale. Studies in the future should also strive to maintain gender parity to avoid skewness in data.

References

Ahmadi, A., Mustaffa, M. S., Haghdoost, A. A., & Alavi, M. (2014). Mindfulness and Related Factors among Undergraduate Students. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 159, 20-24. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.321

Alispahic, S., & Hasanbegovic-Anic, E. (2017). Mindfulness: Age and gender differences on a Bosnian sample. Psychological Thought, 10(1), 155-166. doi:10.5964/psyct.v10i1.224

Dr. Abdul Rahaman. (2015). A Comparative Study of Mindfulness between Male and Female Intervarsity Taekwondo Players of India. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(25), 22-24.

Harvard Business Review. (2016, June 21). Women Need Mindfulness Even More than Men Do. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/06/women-need-mindfulness-even-more-than-men-do

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2019). Mindfulness for All: The Wisdom to Transform the World. London, England: Hachette UK.

Kang, Y., Rahrig, H., Eichel, K., Niles, H. F., Rocha, T., Lepp, N. E., Britton, W. B. (2018). Gender differences in response to a school-based mindfulness training intervention for early adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 68, 163-176. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2018.03.004

Rojiani, R., Santoyo, J. F., Rahrig, H., Roth, H. D., & Britton, W. B. (2017). Women benefit More Than Men in Response to College-based Meditation Training. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00551