Disorders of White Blood Cells and Lymphoid Tissues

Disorders of White Blood Cells and Lymphoid Tissues

White blood cells protect the body of a person from being infected, especially the immune system. Common white blood cell disorders are caused by a viral or bacterial infection, allergies, infection, certain medications, genetic conditions, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. On the other hand, toxins in a person’s body and waste are eliminated by the lymphatic system. The system comprises of organs and tissues which has specified function in getting rid of unwanted materials. One of the critical issues in an individual body is the lymphoid tissue. It has many structural organizations that relate to its specific immune response function. The most organized structure of the lymphoid tissues is located in lymph nodes and thymus. In the lymphoid system, white blood cells like macrophages and reticular cells are included. The reticular cell is responsible for providing structural support, while the macrophages eliminate invades through foreign materials engulfing and immune system initiation. The immune system of a person should be free from infection, and when they are suspected of a disorder, then treatment should be done so that it cannot be a threat to a person’s body organs.

Cellular Differences between Hodgkin Lymphoma and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma are malignancies diseases of white blood cells family referred to as lymphocytes. The two may look similar, but they have cellular differences that define them when examining the affected white blood cells. The first difference is the Reed-Sternberg cells’ presences in Hodgkin lymphoma, which are malignant B cells that have matured, carry more than the common one nuclear and are large(Ambinder & Shanbhag, 2018). Hodgkin lymphoma is also marked with the appearance of lymph nodes that are enlarged. On the other hand, non-Hodgkin lymphoma that affects white blood cells does not have Reed-Sternberg cells when a biopsy is done. Also, it can be derived by contrast from T cells or B cells that can arise in individual lymph nodes and other organs of the body.

Clinical Lymphatic Presentation of Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

Although the early manifestations of Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma may appear differently regarding the lymphatic tissues, they appear clinically in terms of lymphatic presentation. Hodgkin lymphoma normally appears in a person’s upper body part, for example, armpits, chest or neck, while non-Hodgkin lymphoma arises in individuals’ lymph nodes in any part of the body (Ansell, 2018). Similar signs and symptoms are shared by the two diseases and identifying them separately are confusing since both originate from the lymphatic system body’s network, which dispatches B lymphocytes. Patients with either disease experience appetite loss, weight loss, sweats, fatigue, fever, among other symptoms. The clinical differences in the two are that; non-Hodgkin lymphoma patients present subacutely or acutely rapidly growing weight, systemic B manifestations (night sweats, weight loss, fever, and elevated serum lactate levels) and indolent lymphomas with slow lymphadenopathy growth. On the other hand, patients have asymptomatic lymphadenopathy, intermittent fever, chest pain, lung involvement. Also, the patient may have pruritus and back pain. Close lymphatic presentation is essential in determining the type of disease a person possesses since the symptoms might appear the same.

Pharmacologic Properties of Rituximab and its Mechanism of Action on Malignant Cells

Some types of cancer and autoimmune disease are treated using rituximab medication. Rheumatic arthritis, lymphatic leukaemia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, myasthenia gravis, among others are treated using this medication. Rituximab is a monoclonal human antibody that is directed against the CD20 antigen that is located in a person’s malignant and normal B lymphocytes. It triggers the death of cells whenever it binds to the protein. Rituximab works directly at complementing mediated cytotoxicity as well as the mediated cell cytotoxicity that is antibody-dependent. , the indirect effect of ConsequentRituximab includes apoptosis, cancer cells sensitization to chemotherapy and structural changes. Also, it diffuses the B-cell lymphoma that is large in size and follicular lymphoma. The medication is approved to be used in relapsed indolent or refractory non-Hodgkin lymphoma and the results of patients who have indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma when applied rituximab treatment is rarely found with the development of CD20 negative disorder(Oana & Elena, 2018). Rituximab is usually distributed in extravascular and intravascular compartments, and it is universally observed in an individual’s lymph nodes.

The Fab regions (murine fragments) domains normally bind to the antigen CD20 while the covers human (Fc region) assumes the immune functions effector that aims at triggering cellular lysis complex. Cellular lysis occurs through different mechanisms: the first mechanism involves the C1q protein complement system and ensuring pores generation in the B-cell cellular membrane(Lambert & Ninkovic, 2017). The other mechanism is macrophage activation, cytotoxic T-cell, Nk cell and induction of apoptosis basing on two goals (apoptosis and cellular cycle stoppage).  Fc receptors are usually expressed in monocytes, granulocytes, and macrophages. When they in contact, they bind and mingle to the antibody Fc region, leading to signals spreading all through the structure, thus arousing themselves. Also, they may exhibit direct action of the lytic through the granzyme and protein perforin. Rituximab, through natural cells killer, can result in B-cells death. Rituximab is the best medicine to threaten cancerous diseases since it works perfectly in killing harmful cells that might be a treat to a person.

Structure of Lymph Node Parenchyma

Lymph nodes normally occur in a person’s lymphatic vessels course. It works at filtering the lymph in the processes of draining back to an individual bloodstream system. Also, they are important interaction sites between lymphocytes, antigen and the presenting cells of the antigen.  The Lymph nodes are few millimetres in diameter; however, the lymphocytes that are located in the lymph nodes undergo proliferation and activation when there is an initiation of immune response making the nodes to enlarge (Aspelund et al., 2018). The lower part of the lymph node is encased with a capsule. Furthermore, it is bean-shaped and has an indented region referred to as helium; they are covered with a collagenous capsule that extends into the node’s body as septa or trabeculae. The lymph node body is divided into the inner medullar and outer cortex. The inner medullar is normally less cellular while the outer cortex has lymphocytes with high concentration and contains the B-cell which has lymphoid follicles and the macrophages. Between the inner and the outer region lies the paracortex region (ill-defined) where T-cells are located. On the other hand, the lymph node hilum is the region where the blood vessels exit and enter; also the vasculature in the lymph nodes have high endothelial venules (HEV) which B-cells and T-cells enter the nodes from the blood. Max’s lymphoma aroused in the B-cells since he had inguinal lymph nodes, weight loss, fever, and sweats.

In conclusion, ongoing investigations on the antibody-induced killing of cells in patients are essential since lymphoma therapy, especially with rituximab, does not respond positively to all patients, and they are common relapses experienced. Also, it is vital to study the symptoms of patients carefully before treatment is done since some diseases have the same symptoms. Besides, an adaptive system of person immune and innate parallel studies is needed. Resistance mechanisms identification may result in improved treatment, especially by cellular therapies, antibody engineering or cytokine that are explicitly designed to enhance actions of effectors.