Effects of Opioid Crisis on the Human Body

Effects of Opioid Crisis on the Human Body

The Opioid Crisis in America pauses a significant threat to individuals who use the drug for recreational purposes as it has been responsible for a high number of fatalities. The term opioid is derived from the opium poppy, which is a naturally occurring plant alkaloid morphine which is characterized as both an illegal and prescription drug (Liu, 2018). It is estimated that by 2025, the rate of annual overdoses will rise to 81,800 if the current trends remain the same. Therefore, to understand the impact of this crisis, it is essential to look into the effects of the drug on the human body. To address this, this paper will look into the biological effects of opioids.

Biological Effects

Biologically, the factors behind the addiction to opioid addiction are closely linked to the psychology of addiction and the treatment methods that are considered to be effective on the individual. The manner in which opioids interfere with the brain and cause structural and chemical changes is what builds up to its addictive nature. An opioid addiction cycle takes place in three stages. It first begins with the intoxication stage, which affects dopamine release primarily to the limbic system. This is followed by the withdrawal stage, which results from reduced dopamine and the body’s activation to respond to stress. Finally, there is the anticipation and preoccupation stage which is associated with changes in the brain structure where the individual is addicted to the drug and could get into a relapse. These stages are functional on biochemical levels that build up and maintain the addiction to opioids.

In the first stage, the opioids target the G-protein and its receptors as well as the channels responsible for calcium and potassium in the brain. The opiates and G-protein, with its receptors interaction, lead to a reduction of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP), which significantly reduces the number of opiate precursors existing in the brain. Both the Calcium and Potassium channels that are targeted by the opiates tend to have an immediate effect. The channels are located within the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurons, and when the opioids act on them, this causes hyperpolarization. As a result of hyperpolarization, the neurons prevent the release of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Reduction in GABA tends to excite the dopamine-releasing neurons. Apart from the addiction at this stage, there have been cases of damaged brain stems and the frontal cortex. For individuals with a lower tolerance, they can repress the respiratory system to hypoxia leading to death.

As the individual continues to use opiates, there are changes in the normal range of stimulation that the brain is used to and it develops cravings and preference to the drug to achieve the new level of stimulation desired by the brain. This is the second stage that is associated with negative effects. The abuse of opiates at this stage triggers neuroadaptations by the brain. Through various counter-offensive actions, the brain can reduce the impacts related to a repeat stimulation through releasing dopamine. The individual begins to develop a tolerance for the drug and over time, they desire more of the drug, so a to have similar effects. Endurance of the drug can be explained through the opponent-process theory, which states that the a-process is linked to the positive hedonic impacts that come from using the drug while the b-effect is from the negative effects. Over time, pleasure form the a-process tends to decrease while the negative effects related to the b-process increase. The result is an increase in the consumption of the drug to derive similar pleasure. The body at this stage starts to develop flu-like symptoms that are linked to withdrawals. Further, as the body struggles to maintain homeostasis while it adapts to increased levels of stimulation even when there are adjustments to reduce the stimulation.

At the anticipation stage, addiction is considered long-term, with lasting effects on the impact of using opioids. The first effect is on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), which is also referred to as the stress system, which is involved in the anticipation stage. Elevations of the Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) and corticosterone are high due to the drug withdrawals. From the elevation of these external factors, the drug reward system supports brain modification by triggering the brain stress system during the dependence stage of the addiction. Dependence, in this case, means the physical drug dependence, which is linked to withdrawal. The increase in stress levels tends to cause anxiety linked to drug withdrawal. At the anticipation stage, the addiction is characterized by numerous relapses which leads to poor decision making, lack of impulse control and it is intensified by cues related to the environmental association.

Structural changes due to the effects on the brain result in a significant effect on the limbic system. Research from MRI images shows that the long-term abuse of opioids tends to impair the prefrontal cortex, which is known to interfere with the addict’s impulse control. There are reported changes in the cortical thickness which is mainly attributed to opponent processes and habitation linked to abusing the drug. Mental processes are also affected by the abuse of opioids with studies showing that patients who struggled with the abuse of opioids answered complex questions with higher error rates when compared to the control group (*). Genetically, studies indicate that people with the Opioid Receptor Mu 1(OPM1) variant are at a higher risk for opioid addiction as these effects tend to be intense due to the increased affinity in the substrate.

Gastrointestinal issues have also been investigated with research showing that opioid addicts had increased gastrointestinal complications. Constipation was a frequent occurrence when consuming opioids as they slow down the peristaltic movement of the intestines. It is estimated that 40%-95% of people addicted to opioids suffer from constipation. Among elderly users, it has been found that they tend to suffer from gastrointestinal bleeding which with estimates that for every 1000 patients, 14 of them suffered from gastrointestinal bleeding. Endocrine abnormalities are the most dominant physical effects of opioids as they tend to present multiple symptoms. These may include infertility, low sexual drive, depression, fatigue, anxiety, alteration of the individual’s gender roles, muscle and strength loss and menstrual irregularities.

Conclusion

The opioid crisis in America continues to affect individuals and their families as well as overwhelm the health system due to the increasing reported cases. It has become a national crisis that needs to be addressed before it gets to the point of no return. As such, to reduce these biological effects on the body, preventive measures need to be put in place as well as effective response measures that are focused on monitored treatment. A follow up system will ensure that these patients do not relapse or fall back to the addiction after they have received treatment. Biologically, some of these effects are irreversible, and this means that the body begins to wear out as some of these damages even after treatment become permanent.