importance for international cooperation

 importance for international cooperation

Nations rely on other nations to serve as market for their goods, for resources and cooperation which is can be crucial in helping a country achieve its economic and political agenda. This is evidenced by the increasing number of international organizations which are being formed between countries across the world for different purposes. Because of the increased importance for international cooperation, nations of the world have sought to gain allies and partners that can help them to achieve their aims. Since the postulation of the term soft power by Joseph Nye in the mid-90s ambitious countries all over the world have taken steps to acquire allies through attraction using economic, political and cultural incentives. Nations such as the US, the UK and Russia got a head start in forming alliances with nations because of colonialism and the aftermath of the world wars when the US and Russia became the super powers of the world. Emerging super nations such as China and South Korea have sought to acquire allies and friends among other nations for economic and political purposes. The two countries are among the major political and economic powers in South Asia and naturally they are in competition as both countries aim to be the most influential countries in South Asia. Towards this end the two countries have opted for several approaches from the use of benign foreign policy, grants and loans to other countries, and cultural exports. China and South Korea both have rich cultures characterized by their unique clothes, customs, cuisine, art, literature, music, film among many others. China and Korea are competing to gain more influence over South Asia and the rest of the world by using their cuisine and television as soft power resources with varying consequences.

China and South Korea are Asian countries located in the South Asia region. China is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Currently, China the most populous country in the world. The country is also the second largest economy in the world and also has one of the leading militaries in the world. China’s economy grew rapidly in the 20th century to become the economic power it is today. China is the largest exporter and second largest importer of goods China is governed by the Communist Party of China, and the nation generally follows a socialist framework in its politics. China’s culture, surviving millennia includes ceramics, architecture, music, literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, philosophy and religion. South Korea is also a nation located in the East Asia region which was part of the great old powers of East Asia. Korea also experienced rapid economic growth in the 20the century, and is currently one of the largest exporters and importers and is ranked as the 11th country with the highest nominal GDP. Korea is a very technologically advanced nation with majority of the population residing in urban areas such as Seoul. Korea is one of the world’s most advanced democracies and enjoys the most press freedom. Like China, Korean culture is also dominated by old customs which are present in Korean art, cuisine, music, dance, art, painting, crafts, ceramics, architecture and festivals. Contemporarily Korea has gained global fame because of the Korean wave comprising of Korean pop abbreviated to K-pop and Korean-drama. China and Korea have generally good diplomatic relations. Despite the good diplomatic relations between the countries, China and Korea are in competition to advance their influence through cuisine and television films.

II.Film

Film is general word that describes any motion picture that is meant to communicate ideas, stories or other aspects of society to an audience. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary a film is a story or event recorded by a camera as a set of moving images and shown in cinema or on television. Films can be either television films commonly called television shows that are made primarily for distribution by a television while a theatrical film, commonly referred to as movies that are made specifically for movie theaters. Films are one of the most popular forms of entertainment in the world today. Films can be used to spread a country’s customs, philosophies, political ideologies, social dynamics and other aspects of culture Therefore, they can be exploited as a resource for soft power. The US for example, has extensively used its large film industry, Hollywood, as a soft power tool and has furthered its appeal to other countries and cultures. Following suit other countries have realized the potential for soft power through films as they seek to spread the culture and attract other nations by advertising their positive characteristics through the entertainment medium. China and South Korea have not been left behind as both seek to popularize their films across the globe.

1. China and Film

Chinese film can trace its history to 1896 when motion pictures were introduced to mainland China in Shanghai. Motion pictures in China were foreign owned and therefore the domestic Chinese film industry did not commence until 1916, in Shanghai. American influence crept into Chinese fil as a result of the influx of Americans into mainland China who trained local film technicians. Some of the films produced during this period were largely progressive and include films such as Cheng Bugao’s Spring Silk Worms (1933) and The Goddess (1934). Chinese films thrived in the 1930s as major films were produced and the first generation of Chinese film stars such as Hu Die, Runa Lingyu and Jin Yan emerged during this period. However, the Japanese invasion of China and the consequent Japanese occupation of Shanghai curtailed the emergence of domestic Chinese films. After 1945, Chinese films re-emerged and continued to gradually develop and inclining towards leftist policies. Influential films such as Spring Time in a Small Town were produced during this era. The communists take over under Mao Zedong changed the Chinese film trend. The Communist government perceived motion pictures as an essential means of mass production of art forms and also an ideal method of spreading Communist propaganda. The government took patronage of the Chinese film industry and motion productions increased rapidly. The Chinese film industry also diversified under the Communist rule as forms such animated films, documentaries, and news reels joined the Chinese motion picture industry. During the cultural revolution of the late sixties, the film industry in China was hit with vast restrictions that stagnated the industry up to 1972. After the end of the cultural revolution, the film industry made a comeback as a popular means of public entertainment. In the 1980s the film industry, was face with challenges as a result of foreign competition and increased government supervision and restrictions. Despite the regulations, Chinese movies began gaining global attention and this peaked in 1999 with the release of the movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon that garnered unprecedented success in the Western box office. The popularity of Chinese films was further affirmed by the success of Hero which was also a box office hit in the West.

Chinese films have a number of defining features that can be found in most of its films. Chinese films’ content is very restricted and monitored by the government. The government of China is keen to ensure that the messages that are conveyed in Chinese films portray a largely positive image of China. Therefore, one of the most defining features of Chinese local films is that domestic Chinese films only offer minimal criticism of the government if at all. Domestic Chinese films are more inclined towards portraying the Chinese government in a positive light and highlighting the achievements and positives of Chinese society.

Because of the government restrictions on Chinese films, the local Chinese film industry has focused on depicting Chinese culture. However, the content that has resulted after these restrictions have been largely unpopular in the global market. Most successful Chinese films have commonly been produced internationally and thus escaped the artistic straightjacket that the government has imposed on Chinese films. The highest grossing Chinese film Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon featured actors from various parts of China such as Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan and was internationally funded. Similarly other popular Chinese films such as Hero is internationally sponsored was also made specifically for the global audience .These Chinese films are the ones that have brought Chinese film to the global limelight and even though the government has not expressly supported them, the films have contributed a lot in popularizing Chinese culture from Chinese history, traditional attire, religion, martial arts and philosophy among others.

The success of Chinese films has been attributed mainly to the martial arts that is featured in Chinese films. The three most globally successful Chinese films which are Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Hero and Fearless have the common characteristic in that they feature martial arts. In the late 1990s and the early 2000s Chinese martial arts were largely unknown. However, violence and war has always been a great selling point for films. Therefore, it is no surprise that Chinese films that were internationally marketed were mostly successful because of the martial art. Chinese film stars such as Jackie Chan, Bruce Lee and Jet Li who have received global acclaim for their performances in film largely base their movie roles on martial arts. The appeal of Chinese martial art is because it is different from Western forms of violence as it generally does not involve modern weapons and also because its Confucian undertones that Chinese martial arts as a means of body wellness rather than a method of violence. The philosophical attribute of Chinese martial arts where it is presented as a means for self-defense rather than a means for attack and invasion also adds to its popularity. This is largely accepted in a world, where violence is gradually being shunned and body and mental wellness continues to gain popularity. The Chinese government has exploited the growing popularity of Chinese martial arts to further push martial arts in Chinese society as a means of building a healthy citizenry and hence has largely supported the inclusion of martial arts in Chinese film.

Even though Chinese films have largely successful in mainland China, the entire Chinese film industry has struggled to compete with other film countries such as the United States, India, Korea and Nigeria for global influence. This failure is perplexing as China is the largest market for film in the entire world. One of the reasons for this failure is the waning popularity of Chinese martial arts films in the West since the mid-2000s. The general artificialness of Chinese martial arts as depicted in Chinese films does not help the cause of China’s media industry as with time global audiences have come to appreciate real life depictions. The global audience have interpreted the exaggerations in Chinese film martial arts as another ploy to entrench the notion of Chinese superiority. The movie market in the West is constantly evolving and what constitutes the trend today could be obsolete and derided on the next day. Chinese films repeated focus on martial arts has led to many global markets to turn away from Chinese films. As China grew bigger in terms of its economy and its military and its growing influence over global politics, global audiences want to learn more about China. Therefore, by focusing on martial arts and other hackneyed concepts of Chinese culture, the Chinese picture industry has lost its global appeal that it enjoyed in the late 1990s and early 1990s. The global film industry has evolved in taste while Chinese film seems to be stuck in the 1990s heydays of martial arts and this has caused the Chinese aim of furthering its influence in the global movie industry to wane.

The other reason for the relative failure of Chinese films in the global market is the language barrier. Even though Chinese languages are spoken by over one billion in the world, the significant majority of this population is located in Eastern and Southern Asia, where the Chinese influence has taken root. In other parts of the world, Chinese languages are scarcely spoken. Chinese languages such as Mandarin have been labelled as difficult to learn in both speech and writing. This has greatly encumbered the ability of Chinese films to get more popular in the globe. The major markets of film other than China are North America, Europe and India and in all these regions Chinese languages are scantly spoken. When people don’t understand a language, it becomes very difficult for them to enjoy a movie made in the said language. Even with technological advancement that has led to the invention of subtitling software that allows the audience to understand the language being spoken by printing translations of the language on the screen, the experience is simply not the same. Subtitles though beneficial are tiresome to follow and sometimes when a language is translated it could lose meaning which could be very important to the plot of the film. Therefore, a movie’s quality is diminished along with its appeal for the audience. Audiences which are inherently impatient and unwilling to strain in the pretext of entertainment thus move to films from other countries. Because of this language, Chinese films have struggled to gain a significant share of the global film market.

The other reason that has led to the underperformance of Chinese films in the world is the general disconnect between preferences of Chinese film audiences and those of the Western film market when it comes to Chinese films. A study of Chinese film history shows that there are large disparities between how Chinese films perform abroad and how they perform domestically. For instance, the Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon which is the highest grossing foreign film in America, with earnings of over 500 million dollars flopped in China ad only made one million dollars in Chinese theaters. Another scenario that alludes to the difference in tastes between Chinese and the rest of the global film audience is the sales of the film Lost in Thailand which was China’s highest grossing domestic film in 2012 making one hundred and eighty-five million dollars. However, when the film hit the North American big screen, it made a measly sixty thousand dollars. Recently, the film Crazy Rich Asians whose cast is comprised of an Asian core and is shot in Singapore while exhibiting Asian culture garnered global acclaim and got nominated for prestigious awards. However, in China the film underperformed and received largely negative reviews. This paradox can only mean that the Chinese taste in films is significantly different from that of the rest of the global film audience. This is supported by Peter Venezzee, who writes that the Chinese “view themselves as radically different from Westerners” (112). With China growing at rate of 30% per year to become one of the largest film markets in the world, Chinese filmmakers are inclined to stick with what works for the Chinese audience rather than experiment with global tastes and perhaps flop in both markets (Su). It seems that the Chinese movie culture and that of the western market is fundamentally different and thus it could explain why Chinese films flop in the global market (Su). The resentment of globally accepted Chinese films in China indicates that China’s film industry still has a long way to go before it makes it presence felt in the global scene.

China’s film industry has also suffered because of the disparity of the structure of Chinese films and other global film productions. Most of the mainstream film industries such as Hollywood and Bollywood generally follow the three-act story structure. The three-act structure as the name alludes features three major acts. The first act is the set up where the film mainly focuses on exposition and inciting incidents. The second step is the confrontation act which is characterized by amplification of action in the film. The third step is the resolution which features the pre-climax, climax and the eventual denouement. The three-step structure is a tried and tested method as evidenced by the global success of Hollywood and Bollywood. Chinese films, on the other hand, in an effort towards novelty have attempted to come up with new structures which have mostly been futile. For example, the 2010 film Let Bullets fly was criticized for its rambling nature that is reminiscent of oral tradition that makes it very difficult to follow the plot twists. These disparities in structure of some Chinese films have not been eagerly accepted by the global market. This is perhaps because most of the global audiences learnt about film from Hollywood pictures and as such, they are tuned to expect and enjoy a the three-step film structure. Because of the experimentation with film structures, some Chinese films have failed to make an impact globally.

Government censorship is also a critical factor that has impended the success of Chinese films abroad. The government of China has a lot of influence over the Chinese film industry. According to Darren William Davis “The Chinese film industry has always had close ties with the state; once a propaganda arm, it has upgraded to a visible, lucrative source of revenue and prestige” (124). The Government of China has historically restricted Chinese film as they view it as a way of portraying the image of China to the outside world. The Chinese Government has famously been keen to ensure that China’s image is revered by the globe as means of exerting soft power over the globe. However, these overt efforts to dictate what films talk about and document in their productions have suppressed artistic freedom of Chinese film makers. From the study of Chinese film history, it is evident that films which tend to play well in China, meaning that they have the government’s seal of approval flop in the global market. Similarly, films that garner large revenues often feature content such as sex, violence and individualism are commonly banned by the Chinese censoring machinery. The government’s censorship usually encumbers film makers ability to make films that present the human reality of China and this could possibly be why Chinese films seem to have stuck with themes from the nineties in spite of the great social and economic changes that have taken place in China. The global audience that knows the influence of the Chinese government of Chinese movies are likely to be predisposed to under-consume Chinese film because they know that the authenticity of the film has likely been sacrificed for positive portrayals of China’s government.

1. Korea Films

Like China’s film industry Korea’s film industry has experienced a tumultuous history. In the early years of the 19th century Korean film industry experienced a notable growth as evidenced by the successes of films such as Arirang. However, Japan which had occupied the Korean territories censored and hence inhibited the growth of the Korean film industry. The Korean war led to the destruction of most existing Korean films. After the end of the Korean war, the film industry began to flourish again between the late 1950s through to the 1960s. In the seventies, the Korean film industry was encumbered by government censorship. From 1980, censorship was relaxed and from 1996 to date new generations of filming talent and ideal conditions allowed the Korean film industry to truly flourish and become the global juggernaut that it is today. Korean dramas also called K-dramas which were largely influenced by Japanese TV drama have gained popularity. Relative to China and other East Asian film industries, Korea’s film industry has been largely successful for a number of reasons.

First is the wide variety of Korean films meant to suit the wide variety of tastes among film audiences. Korean films include different genres such as romantic comedies, historical drama, fantasy pictures, science fiction, action, and romance. By having a wide variety of genres Korean films have appealed to a wider market base across East Asia and the world at large. People naturally have different tastes and preferences when it comes to film and entertainment as a whole. Therefore, the dedication of the Korean industry to meet the needs of every film watcher, Korea has furthered the popularity of its films. Because of this diversity Korean film can be enjoyed by people of different ages, gender, religion and other identities. This aura of inclusivity boosts the reputation of Korean films among the film audience. Also, through its variety, Korea films allow viewers to alternate between genres and consume different forms of films and thus the viewer does not need to look for films from other nations to satisfy their filmic desires.

Korean films have also become popular because of its accessibility because of the advancement of technology. Korea, is one of the most technologically advanced nations in the world and headquarters major technology companies such as Samsung. The technological innovation in Korea has led to the production of video sharing and portable video viewing technology. The invention of video streams has been a great boost for South Korean films. More people in the world can now watch films at their convenience without going through former hustles such as queueing for tickets at the theater. The technological orientation of South Korea has prompted film makers to look towards technology to aid in then distribution of films. Unlike China which has restricted many foreign video streaming channels from its territories, South Korea has embraced sites such as Netflix which has a large universal membership that has been pivotal in promoting the exposure across the globe. Furthermore, technology has also provided means for the addition of Korean subtitles which are important for global non-Korean audiences. Because of these technological advancements and technological embracement, Korean films’ popularity has rapidly increased in the recent past.

The format of the Korean films has also added to their appeal and hence popularized them further. Unlike Chinese films which have sometimes goes against the three-step norm, Korea has largely followed this tried and tested format in manufacturing their films. Because this format has already embraced by the global film audience, Korean films resonate and are easy to follow which makes them an enjoyable watch. Furthermore, Korean films particularly K-dramas whose popularity continues to increase rapidly are relatively short and makes them convenient for the hectic nature of contemporary society. Korean dramas usually last about 16 to 20 minutes long. This length of the drama episodes is an ideal viewing for people who have a lot of work to do and only watch films for brief periods for relaxation. Moreover, the episodes usually are ten to sixteen in number. This format is very synonymous, particularly, American TV shows that typically have about ten episodes per season. Because of this structure, American viewers are more likely to watch the familiarly structured Korean dramas rather than Chinese drams which typically have a very large number of episodes per season. In this way Korean film gets more popular.

The content of Korean films has also received praise from its viewers. Other than the aforementioned variety in Korean films, Korean films depict content that has successfully created emotional connections with viewers. The realistic depiction of human life in Korea resonates with global audiences which are increasingly acquiring a preference for realistic depictions and stories. Also, Korean films are renowned for their freshness as their plots are refreshingly unique from hackneyed plots that have been recycled in Western productions. This freshness has attracted new audiences who view Korean films in pursuit for new experiences. Also. Korean films depict appealing aspects of Korean culture from cuisines and fashion which have also attracted newer viewers because of its trendiness. Korean films have also rode on the wave of the global attention of Korean pop and inculcated Korean pop songs into their films and thus have attracted the vast fan base of Korean pop to also explore Korean film.

Another factor that has also been crucial to the success of Korean films is the supportive environment. The Korean wave was ignited by “the state deregulation and neo-liberal reforms during the 1990s in Korea” (Berg 2005). Unlike China’s government which polices, censors and restricts films and artistic voices, the Korean government has allowed a room for free expression through art. The democratic nature of Korea and its very liberal environment have created an environment where film makers can freely express their ideas and translate them into films. The Korean democracies prioritizes free speech and as such movie makers do not carry any fear about while doing their productions because they know that they are free.

Comparing the varying levels of success of China and Korea reveals that there are differences in approaches regarding between the two countries. One of the main differences between the two nations is the role of the government in the film industry. In the Chinese film industry, the government has used heavy handed methods such as censoring and banning some types of film with the aim of controlling the portrayal of China’s image to the global community. The effects of these overt government involvement in Chinese film has limited the content of Chinese films and also suppressed the ability of Chinese filmmakers of exploring various thoughts, ideas and emotions that the government considers unideal. Consequently, Chinese films have struggled to make a significant impact globally in spite of its large local film market. On the other hand, the Korean government has entrenched democratic ideals such as freedom of expression which has allowed Korean film makers to think far and wide without any fear of potential government restriction. Because of this freedom, Korean films are known for their wide variety of genres and unique plots that advance the popularity of the Korean film industry. Furthermore, Korea’s government embracing foreign video streaming sites such as Netflix while China’s government continues to restrict foreign video streaming sites has done a disservice to Chinses films. While Korean films enjoy access to the global audience because of international video streaming sites such as Netflix, China’s films are only shared on Chinese video streaming sites which have little global presence.

The other difference is in how the two countries have chosen to promote their culture through their films. China and South Korea have both sought to advertise their cultures and strengths of their countries through their films. Chinese films have been steadfast in prioritizing painting a perfect image of China, and when it comes to martial arts exaggerating the superiority of Chinese culture. China’s films prioritize promoting the positives of their cultures first before attempting to appease the rest of the globe’s film preference. Chinese films that have been made for Western markets have flopped in China because once the Chinese film market sees that appeasing to Western audience has taken precedence over correctly portraying Chinese culture, the film is rejected locally. South Korea, on the other hand, has taken a different approach to marketing their culture through their film. South Korean films intentionally appeal to global audiences by exploring themes and content that sell well in the rest of the world, and then embedding Korean culture into their films. Korean films are not particularly famous because of how they promote culture but rather because of its content that resonates with many people in the world. Riding on this popularity, the embedded Korean culture such as fashion, etiquette, language and cuisine in the films also gain global popularity. China, on the other hand, with its holistic approach has failed in affirming its place as a global force in terms of film and hence the soft power that it acquires through its films is minimal.

These differences between China and South Korea’s films are some of the reasons why South Korean films are relatively more popular than China’s films. Because of this South Korea has achieved success in spreading its soft power as an entertainment powerhouse particularly in East and South Asia and this soft power is gradually being exerted over the world. South Korea has successfully used its films to advertise its strengths and culture. The recent success of Korean food and Korean pop can be attributed to the popularity. Also, the growing regard for Korean technology in the world can be attributed to the success of Korean films. China’s films on the other hand have struggled on the global stage. However, the few numbers of Chinese films that have achieved international success have successfully promoted Chinese culture such as martial arts, Chinese landmarks such as the Great Wall, Chinese philosophy, Chinese Buddhism and Chinese history.

III. Cuisine

Cuisine alludes to the unique cooking styles of cultures defined by their distinctive ingredients, dishes and methods. China and Korea both have long histories that rich heritages that has allowed their cuisine to develop distinct characteristics. Cuisine can boost a country’s soft power by boosting the country’s image, and the foundation of cultures and identity. Because of this food can be pivotal in establishing relations between cultures and nations of the world. China and South Korea are using their distinct cuisine as a tool for soft power.

1. Chinese Cuisine

China is among the oldest civilizations in the world. Food has always been central to Chinese culture and carries many symbolisms for social interactions. Chinese cuisine thrived because of the early organization of China that allowed for farming which produced crops that formed the foundation Chinese cuisine. During this periods food was “the most important part of social material and cultural life” (362). The disparate climatic conditions of China led to the farming of different crops in various regions and the combination of these foods made Chinese food complex and diverse. The Chinese believed that food was the basis of good health and hence food was revered in Chinese culture. Coupled with the constantly shifting demands from elites such as provincial governors that prompted experimentation and the continuous acceptance of foreign influence, Chinese food acquired characteristics of diversity, creativity and complexity. Chinese cuisine primarily consists of a starch or grain main meal accompanies with vegetables or meat or a combination of the two. Contemporarily Chinese food is one of the most popular cuisine in the entire world. This popularity can be attributed to several factors.

First, is the huge number of Chinese populations in the diaspora. Chinese people have a great history of migrating to other nations for the purposes of trade, exploration and in search of asylum. There are very many people of Chinese heritage scattered across the world. According to statistics, there are more than fifty million Chinese who live outside China. Most of them are found in South Asia, but there also significant populations in Europe and North America. In America, the assimilation of Chinese food into the American diet intricately enmeshed with the assimilation of immigrant Chinese into America (Kwa). The Chinese emigrants carried with them Chinese culture including Chinese cuisine and thus introduced Chinese cuisine to the outside world. Through interactions with other cultures from their host nations, the overseas Chinese exchanged culinary concepts with the other cultures and gradually people of other cultures acquired a taste for Chinese food. Some of the Chinese emigrants started Chinese restaurants in their host nations to target nearby overseas Chinese. The people of the host nations gradually came to accept and enjoy Chinese cuisine because of its exotic nature. Today, many Chinese restaurants can be found across the world as more people become attracted to Chinese food. Overseas Chinese have also publicized Chinese food through Chinese ceremonies where Chinese all are welcome and Chinese food forms the core of the festivals. In this way Chinese food has gotten more popular across the world.

Chinese cuisine is also popular in the world because of its wide variety. China is advantaged because of the varying climatic conditions that suited the planting of various crops across the country. China’s proximity to the sea also allowed the Chinese to explore marine food. The consequence is that very many cooking styles emerged across China. There are eight main cuisines in Chinese food with each type of cuisine having its own unique and distinct taste. Chinese foods such as the Peking duck, hot pots of Shenyang, spicy hot beef vegetables of Hunan, roast goose of Guangdong, fresh seafood of Guangzhou and the dim sums of Hon Kong are but a few of the variety of Chinese dishes. With such as variety, Chinese cuisine is positioned for the vastly different tastes of the numerous cultures across the world. The chances of a person getting something that they like among the various techniques of Chinese cuisine is very high. The wide variety also grants people more options to choose from and hence there is little danger of monotony when it comes to Chinese food. Chinese foods have also been adapted according to location so as to appeal to the palate of the host population. Chinese food in America is different from Chinese food in Britain and even more different to Chinese food in South Asia.

These factors other than the obvious factors of deliciousness and the fact that Chinese foods can be prepared quickly are among the reasons why Chinese cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines in the world. Chinese cuisine has been a great source of soft power for China as it has boosted the image of China and created curiosity about what else could be great about China and hence has attracted potential allies to China.

1. Korean Cuisine

Korea, like China has a long agricultural history that has led to the emergence of its unique food culture. Korean cuisine is mostly base on rice, vegetables and meats. Different Korean regions have differing dishes which have slowly been adopted as national dishes. Korean cuisine is an amalgamation of traditional Korean food with influences from other cultures such as Japanese cuisine. Though not as popular as China, Korean food is gaining popularity globally as evidenced by the proliferation of Korean restaurants across the world because of various reasons.

The growing popularity of Korean food is largely as a result of aggressive marketing. The government of Korea has played a significant role in the growing popularity of Korean food. The Korean government identified the potential of food in advancing soft power and as such embarked on an effort to globalize Korean food in what was referred to as the Hansik movement. The Korean government invested heavily in advertising Korean food. Many advertising spaces were bought in various media channels across the world. The Korean government purchase billboards in Times Square, space in publications such as the New York Times and others. The initiative attracted significant attention to Korean food. However, the effort did not yield the expected results and its output was considerably lower than projections. This outcome is in line with Choe, Seo‐Youn, and Jae‐Hee Hong’s research that revealed that “to improve foreign consumers’ preference for an ethnic food, providing information about it verbally may only be partially successful” (13). The research revealed that the best strategy for marketing cuisine was by actually letting people tasting it, and hence indirectly advocating for marketing strategies that set the platform that could facilitate the organic popularization of food.

Korean food has also been marketed by Korean drams and Korean pop. The Korean wave which is the growing popularity of Korean dramas and Korean pop globally has also acted as a genius way for marketing of Korean food. Korean foods featured in Korean dramas such as kimchi has gained popularity in the world. This is because of the star power of Korean actors and the influence they wield over shaping perceptions, trends and preferences among their fandoms. When a person sees someone whom they admire such as a star actor eating a particular meal, they are likely to imitate the actor. Korean foods are heavily featured in Korean dramas. Some Korean pop videos also feature Korean food and help market Korean cuisine as well.

1. Comparison

The two countries have similarities and differences in their approaches of marketing their films and their food. In terms of film, both countries are similar in that they have both looked for means to promote the positives of their country to the world through film. Chinese films are renowned for martial arts, history, architecture and their philosophy. The martial arts aspect of Chinese films improved the perception of Chinese might which helped it gain soft power. China’s films also feature great details about Chinese rich history, which is beneficial because of two reasons. First it shows that China is an old civilization hence dispelling false notions that China is a new power, and affirming the Chinese claim that China’s rise was simply as case of a sleeping line awakening from its slumber. Also, by depicting its history in terms of colonial, China is able to resonate with developing countries and hence gain soft power over them through showing that it shares a colonial history with the developing countries. Chinese films also show old and grand Chinese architecture, which sensitizes the world to China’s prosperous parts and also offers boosts China’s reputation as a construction giant. China is currently engaged in infrastructural initiatives such as the Belt and Road initiative and hence in promoting the image of the architectural prowess they are able attract partners in need of infrastructure. Chinese films also advertise Chinese philosophy, by hinting at Chinese aspects such respectfulness, business acumen and hard work. In advertising this Chinese traits, Chinese films improve the reputation of China and the Chinese across the world and hence improving its soft power.

Similarly, Korea has also embarked on advertising its culture through films. According to research conducted among Chinese and Japanese citizens, watching Korean dramas correlated with a positive change in perspective about South Korea. The research further revealed that “these positive attitudes yielded higher levels of behavioral intentions such as visiting Korea or buying Korean products” (Jae-Wong et. al 94) Korean films advertise Korean cuisine, Korea’s technological advancement, its liberal social system, etiquette and Korea’s democratic institutions. Korean films particularly Korean dramas commonly feature Korean foods such as kimchi among others. Kimchi is “has been commonly associated with Koreanness” (Oum 1) Because of the large fanbase Korean films have become a genius way that Korea is advertising its food in a bid to globalize Korean cuisine and extract soft power from it. Korean films also advertise Korea’s technological advancement to the rest of the world. Korea, being one of the most technologically advanced countries wants others to see its advancement and innovations increase its stature as a technology hub across the globe. Korean films also advertise Korea’s liberal system, etiquette and democratic institutions. The combination of these three attributes is appealing to many people because of its almost utopic traits where people are free but respectful. This countenance makes Korea very attractive to the outside world.

In spite of this similarity, Korea and China have essentially differed in how they have packaged their relatively similar messages into the films and this is the cause of their different fortunes in the film industry. China has prioritized promoting its culture over the content of their films. Chinese films have tended to be rigidly authentic and tell Chinese stories in a Chinese way. The result is that Chinese films have enjoyed local success but largely failed in international markets. Korean films, on the other hand, have combined Korean themes and popular styles and embedded Korean culture into the films. Korean films are “multi-layered and multi-directional” (Eun-Young, 78) Because of this style, Korea’s films, particularly Korean dramas have become popular globally and served as an effective tool for promoting Korean soft power.

The other major difference between Korean films and Chinese films is the government’s involvement in the production of the films. China’s Communist ruling party, has for long exerted control over China’s global image. The government of China has largely censored and regulated films which it deems to portray China in negative light or those that glorify non-Chinese values and culture. Because of this political straightjacket that has been imposed on China’s film industry. This has stifled artistic freedom in the Chinese film industry which is important for any media industry to thrive. Chinese filmmakers have thus been forced to make films using hackneyed concepts which are no longer receptible in the global film market. This has led to the abysmal performance of Chinese films in the global market. In South Korea on other hand, liberalism and democracy are deeply entrenched in the society. Filmmakers are free to explore any theme of their choosing without fear of any red tape during production. This liberalism has promoted creativity among South Korean filmmakers as evidence by wide variety of themes explored in various Korean dramas. Because of the government’s hands-off approach, South Korean films have thrived and emerged as one of the most popular film industries in the world.

Cuisine-wise, China and Korea also have differences into how they have gone about exporting and marketing this cultural export. The main difference between the two styles of cooking is the manner in which their foods have become popular in the world. For China, the popularity of its cuisine was organic and spontaneous. Owing its long and rich history, wide variety, deliciousness, health benefits and the influence of the large number of overseas Chinese, Chinese food has become one of the most popular cuisines in the planet. Chinese cuisine made its way to other parts of the world many centuries ago and people got an appetite for it early. The adaptability of Chinese to suit the different parts of the world furthered the appeal of Chinese food. The Chinese emigrants who left China and carried elements of the cuisine with them influenced other cultures in their host countries and hence gave Chinese cuisine a head start in food globalization. The wide nature of Chinese cuisine’s variety also helped expand the popularity of Chinese food in other countries. Because of these factors Chinese cuisine organically gained popularity in the world. Chinese cuisine has been a source of soft power for China particularly in South East Asia where the Chinese food is very popular.

Korean food on the other hand, is not as popular as Chinese food but its popularity is definitely increasing. Unlike Chinese food whose popularity came about organically, the growing popularity of Korea’s food is largely as a result of aggressive marketing by the Korean government and Korean dramas. In a bid to globalize Korean cuisine, the Korean government invested in aggressive advertisement of Korean cuisine in western market. This venture was not as successful as the Korean government had hoped for. However, Korean cuisine is gaining a lot of popularity, through the increasingly well-liked Korean drama. The subtle advertisement of Korean food in the drama has led to the popularization of Korean foods such as kimchi. However, Korean cuisine still has a long way to go before it matches the popularity of Chinese cuisine.

China and Korea are competing neighbors with both aiming at gaining more influence in East and South Asia and indeed the world at large. Thus, they are using their cultural exports as resources for advancing soft power. Some of the two countries most famous cultural exports are films and cuisine. Although some Chinese films such as Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon achieved financial success and global acclaim, Chinese films have mostly flopped in the global market. This is because of factors such as content, structure, and government’s regulation of the films. South Korean films, however, have been largely successful and are growing in fame because of their content, exploitation of technology and variety. In terms of cuisine, Chinese cuisine has the upper hand in comparison to Korean food owing to its rich and long history in various parts of the world, variety and the large number of overseas Chinese who continue to popularize it. Korean food is just emerging as a global cuisine, and even though Korea’s government’s efforts ultimately achieved low levels of success, Korean dramas are slowly helping popularize the food. A point that stands out in the study is the relationship between government’s direct influence on a cultural export and the success of the cultural export. In Chinese films the influence of the government has coincided with its relative failure. Similarly, for Korean cuisine the government’s attempts to aggressively market the cuisine yielded sub-par results. Comparing it to the successful cultural exports of Korean films and Chinese film which got popular organically, it can be hypothesized that soft power is more effective when it is exerted organically rather than through aggressive government directives and strategy.