Masculinities and the Media
The concept of gender is central to societies across the world. All of them are built upon a culture that distinguishes between the male and female population. As a result of these differences, the societies assign various roles and expectations of behavior to each gender which constitute their ideas of masculinity and feminism. These ideals may vary from one society to another. However, there is a standard notion of masculinity and feminism that almost all cultures uphold and consent to. For a long time, scholars have debated whether gender is natured or nurtured. The school of thought that it is natured opine that males and females were programmed from birth to be masculine and feminine respectively. The opposing school of thought that opine that it is nurtured believe that being male or female is a learned process through social processes , such as education and through social interactions. Truly, biology defines the basic elements that define one’s gender. However, it is undeniable that significantly large aspects of gender, such as the behaviors associated with feminism or masculinity are constructed by societal cultures and beliefs. This essay delves into the subject of masculinity focusing on the effect of media on how it is perceived within society and suggests an action plan to promote healthy masculinity.
Defining Masculinity
Defining masculinity remains a challenge since it differs across time, cultures and fields of study. First, the definition of masculinity differs across various fields. For instance, psychologists, biologists and sociologists all define masculinity in different ways. Also, the concept of masculinity greatly varies over time. Even within a single society, what was described as the defining factors that demonstrate masculinity 100 years ago, may not be similar to what stands for masculinity in the same societies today. Additionally, the concept of masculinity varies through one’s life. For instance, what someone defines as masculine in their teenage years may vary significantly it that which they define as masculine in their adult years. Lastly, masculinity varies between cultures. For instance, the concept of masculinity in Africa may significantly vary to that in the United States culture. These variations makes it difficult for scholars to resolve the various definitions of the concept into a coherent whole. However, there is general consensus about the fact that masculinity emphasizes on gender rather than being male which emphasizes on biological sex. Due to these multiple variations, scholars refer to the concept in its plural form, masculinities (Kimmel & Bridges, 2014). Masculinities can be defined as the relations, behaviors and roles of men within different cultures. Don't use plagiarised sources.Get your custom essay just from $11/page
History of Masculinities Studies
Even though the study of masculinity has not always been explicitly considered as an independent academic field, patterns of masculinity have always been part of the society. Literature from ancient days contained specifications about laws that governed what men should or should not do, constituting what was believed to “make a man.” For instance, the Code of Hammurabi, an ancient code that governed Mesopotamia had a specification that “”If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him”(King, 2005). This extract demonstrates that the society had consensus about how ways in which men should behave. This continued in the mediaeval and Victorian eras with specific physical and social aspects that defined what was expected from males and thus, thought as being masculine. In the 17th century, the power that men had over women constituted the main idea of masculinity and significantly impacted the formation of a man’s identity. Harvey (2005) describes the idea of masculinity in this era as: “The Household Patriarch”, a role that required the men to be in full control of their houses and dependents. Towards the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the histiography shifted to the “Polite Gentleman”, a figure that provided an ideal masculinity image of a man who had smooth social interactions, integrity and civility. Towards the beginning of the 20th century to present, the model of masculinity transformed to include being the provider, assertive, sexually assertive and athletic. Even though women begun to take bigger roles as economic contributors to their families due to increased incomes and increased participation in the workplace, men still take the central role as the breadwinners. The future still demonstrates shifts in the model of masculinity as more males strive to counter traditional masculine stereotypes.
Influences of Masculinity
There are various factors during one’s upbringing that influence masculinities. According to Sylla (2019), these factors can be divided into three levels. The first is cultural factors. These are ideas and customs of a particular people that determine norms for each gender and sex. These may include factors such as religious beliefs, laws and regulations, family upbringing, social circles and the media. Sylla (2019) identifies the media as the most dominant cultural factor that greatly shapes gender narratives, and thus is the focus of this essay. The second level of influences are the social factors which create conditions through which the norms, ideas and attitudes about masculinity function. These include socio-economic factors such as poverty, lack of educational opportunities and resources, inadequate healthcare facilities, racial crimes among others. The third level is systemic factors which comprise of factors that are inherent to the overall national or global system. These influence what is perceived as an appropriate expression of masculinity and may include factors such as, systemic racism, socioeconomic inequality, patriarchy, sexism among others.
The Media and Masculinity
Media is a word that was developed from the word medium which means a carrier. In essence, the word suggests that media is a carrier of information. Traditionally, media was restricted to print sources such as magazines and books. However, today, media has taken more diverse forms encompassing radio, television, movies and the internet. As the media becomes more essential in our everyday lives, it has taken a bigger role in informing and shaping public opinion, either to the strengthening or detriment of the society. The following section delves into various forms of media analyzing the relationship between the media channels and masculinities.
Masculinity as Represented In Movies
The movie industry is vast consisting of various genres and diverse male stars who perpetuate a particular image of masculinity. The first genre is the action movies whose main actors are involved in a series of events that are violence-centered with multiple physical fights and chases. Typically, the movies have the protagonist using guns or any other weapons against the villains in the plot. In these movies, masculinity is depicted as heterosexual with the protagonists engaging in excessive physical fights, romantic scenes and fast driving of powerful automobiles (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004). In some cases, the protagonists have close associations with another male co-actor showing strong male-male friendships as is the case in sports media.
Additionally, the movies project an image of heroism that is reliant on physical strength or capability to fight. The male actors are able to use big guns or fight hand to hand, defeating their enemies. Their strength suggests that the male actors are not gay, a concept that is perpetrated by the stereotype that gay men are effeminate (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004). These strategies are intended to help the regular male identify with the movie’s idea of masculinity.
Another popular movie genre is the Westerns which are usually based on fictional stories whose plots are set up in the American Old West and feature a cowboy. The idea of being male that these movies perpetrate is the traditional American image of masculinity. Unlike other movies that may conclude with romantic narratives, Westerns may represent males as loners, and the movies may end without culmination into romantic relationships, thus propagating the image that they cannot be domesticated. However, their heterosexuality is emphasized as they are represented as protectors of women due to their strength and fighting skills. Physically, the cowboys have a ragged look and ride horses around the rough American landscape. They depict bravery and courage with impeccable natural ethics. In essence, these cowboys depict an image of masculinity that is ragged, independent and strong, resolving disputes using guns and tough talk.
Another movie genre that depicts masculine stereotypes is war films. These are movies whose plots are centered on stories and experiences of war. First, these movies begin with the demonstration of the process young boys go through as initiation into the world of the military. These boys are excluded from their families, especially from female interaction building a stereotype that males are independent creatures whose proper place in the world can only be obtained in individuality. During these stages, the new recruits are referred to using names such as “trainees” or “maggots” with the training that names such as “soldier” can only be earned (Donald & MacDonald, 2011). On one hand, these films portray positive masculine stereotypes such as a strong ability to attract and seduce beautiful women from whom they seek comfort in the middle of the chaos of war, good relationship with an older male father figure or mentor, immense strength and courage. However, on the other hand, they portray negative stereotypes such as unhealthily attached to their mothers, rebelliousness, homophobic fear, unhealthy rivalry with a brother or close friend and psychopathic tendencies (Donald & MacDonald, 2011).
Comedy films are yet another avenue that media uses to depict different versions of masculinity. One common feature of these movies and how they depict masculinity is their homophobia. For instance, an article by Washbourne (2018) delves into the roles played by Adam Sandler, a dominant male figure in American comedies. In his comedies, Sandler appears to be disgusted with homosexual bodies and the behavior of gay men. Another aspect that is typical to comedy films is the idea of “bro-mance.” These are homo-social relationships between males which tend to prioritize platonic friendships over romance (Bambach, 2016). While this representation of males as emotional and openly sensitive drifts from the traditional masculine depiction, it still reinforces the image of men as independent of female company.
Sports films are also a prominent movie genre that significantly propagates masculine representations. First, these films emphasize the image of physical machismo as a key identity marker for males. These movies affirm the image of masculinity that comprises of intense competitiveness, physical and mental toughness (Friedman, 2020). On one hand, this image associates masculinity with positive attributes such as courage, physical and mental fitness and discipline. However, this depiction also brings forth negative attributes such as the belief that males are naturally superior to women.
Masculinity as Represented In Advertising
Advertising has also been a significant media tool that spreads attitudes and perceptions of masculinity. In the previous years, advertisements portrayed masculinity as dichotomous with femininity whereby it was associated with qualities such as strength and independence which contrasted those like sensitivity and submissiveness which were associated with femininity. One famous advertisement of the 1960s and 1970s that typifies this image is the Marlboro man. Initially filtered cigarettes were thought to be feminine. In 1950s, the tobacco company sought a way to increase the consumption of the cigarettes to include the male population as well. Thus, the resolution to introduce the image of the Marlboro man, who was a rugged cowboy which at the time, was the conventional image of admired masculinity (Cortese & Ling, 2011). This figure represented freedom, power, dominance and adventure, qualities that demonstrated how males perceived themselves at the time.
A more recent media advertisement that reflects the everyday realities about masculinities in the society is the Mondelez cheese spread. In the comical advertisement, two men were portrayed as unable to cater for a baby evidenced by them leaving the baby on a restaurant conveyor belt. This imagery further enhances the image of traditional masculinity that perceived child rearing as a feminine role. Additionally, most male products were advertised with an image of a muscular man which demonstrated that males were expected to be muscular and physically strong. In other advertisements, they would be seen engaging in man-on-man violence or extreme sports. Nonetheless, following a directive by the Advertisements Standards Authirity, the Mondelez cheese advertisement was banned (BBC News, 2019). This indicates a shift in masculinity portrayal in the media.
An advert that exemplifies the eagerness to promote healthy masculinity and refute toxic masculinity is the media is the 2019 Gillette Ad. Over the last years, there have been movements to criticize the traditional masculinity representation which was associated with qualities such as power, control, violence, insensitivity and anger among others, labelled as “toxic masculinity.” Such movements include the #MeToo movement against sexual harassment and assault and the #TimesUp movement whose goal was to bring attention to sexual harassment within the society. Gillette launched an advertisement themed “The Best a Man Can Be” that featured males standing up against sexual harassment, bullying and other forms of toxic masculinity. This depiction of masculinity was largely celebrated, however, as expected in the era of social media, the advertisement still received backlash from some quotas.
Another recent advertisement that has attempted to represent a new masculine aesthetic is the ASOS’ Go Play Campaign. The advert chose to integrate the subversion of traditional gender roles into their beauty and make up campaign by encouraging “Endless Ways to Be You.” This tagline advocates for self-expression regardless of existing norms or models of masculinity within society.
Masculinity in Sports Media
Sports media has also significantly contributed to how the society views masculinity. One of the main themes that is evident is sports media is violence. In most cases, sports –centered films or advertisements tend to promote aggression among males by suggesting that violence and aggression is rewarded. A research that assessed NFL games identified that commentators replayed violent scenes between players and enthusiastically reported about players being “walloped”, “buried” or “cleaned out” (Messner et al., 2016). Some glorified violent expressions among players reporting that they were “showing much love.” In some cases, sports media glorifies males who continue to play despite pain or injuries. This quality is sometimes referred to as toughness, which is demonstrated as a prerequisite to good sportsmanship. Such players were portrayed as heroes for their dangerous plays or ability to play while injured. Additionally, Messner et al. (2016) report that sports announcers relied on inflating conflict between sports rivals to increase viewership and eagerness among spectators of the game.
Another theme that stands out in sports media is heterosexuality and phobia against homosexuals. Over the years, sportsmanship has always been associated with heterosexual tendencies glorifying macho behavior among males. For the first time ever in NFL history, a player Michael Sam came out publicly as a gay man. Following his announcement, experts anticipated that his ratings would go down predicting lower paying contracts and quick let-gos from the teams that he would play for, in case of inferior performance (Pilkington, 2014). His announcement was followed by backlash with ad busters released mocking him and his team for his sexual orientation. These moves demonstrated that the NFL and other big sport federations were stereotyped as hubs for big and strong heterosexual males.
Summary of Media Representations of Masculinities
Media representations vary in content and audiences. However, key themes can be noted in the above analysis of media representation of masculinities in films, sports media and advertisements. The first is the concept of hegemonic masculinity. This refers to the tendency to ascribe certain traits as being representative of a “real man” and tend to justify the domination of males over females. Hegemonic masculinity manifests itself in various forms across various media. For instance, males are frequently categorized as heterosexual which idealizes heterosexual relationships. Also, the association of males with duties other than the domestic household chores such as child rearing or as lone leaders who are independent of women enhance hegemonic masculinity. Males who are homosexuals, engage in domestic chores or are emotionally sensitive are then regarded as gender non-conformists.
Another theme that arises in the media representations of masculinities is toxic masculinity. This entails the misrepresentation of males with traits that promote sexual harassment, aggression and violence. For instance, this may include the unspoken code of behavior that is expected of males, especially in settings such as the military. Even though there are formal requirements that may require secrecy as regards certain issues in the military, general emotional suppression is associated with adverse health effects on human beings. On the physiological level, emotional suppression is linked to lower body immunity and vulnerability to multiple illnesses such as, hypertension, obesity, common colds, sexual dysfunction, fatigue and dermatitis, among others (Patel & Patel, 2019). Further, emotional suppression is linked to psychological disorders such as stress and depression, which may lead to substance abuse among young males. In essence, these connections demonstrate the close link between toxic masculinity traits and the well-being of the male population.
Ways of Promoting Positive Masculinities in the Media
In light of the above effects it is essential that the media collaborates with other stakeholders to promote positive masculinities. The first step is to identify the tenets of positive masculinity. It is important to recognize that boys and men are made up of diverse social identities. For instance, they come from different races, cultures, ages, sexual orientations, economic classes, religions, among others. Therefore, each of them perceives and experiences their masculinities differently influenced by the intersection of these aspects of social identity. Additionally, it is important to note that not all models of masculinity propagated by the media are negative. Some such as competitiveness and discipline in sports are positive traits for the male population. However, it is impossible to overlook the negative traits such as emotional suppression that may adversely affect boys and men. In light of such representations of masculinity, A Call to Men, an organization that deals with issues of manhood has developed a set of tenets that are vital to creating a healthy masculinity. These include; an emphasis on embracing a full range of emotions, reducing the pressure for men to conform to the expectation to always be fearless and in control, valuing and treating women and other people respectfully, modelling respectful manhood to other men and boys, moral courage, compassion among others (A Call to Men, n.d). Being aware of these tenets is the first step towards positive masculinity. However, it is important to note that positive masculinity is expansive and cannot be restricted to certain traits alone.
The government has a vital role in promoting positive media representations of masculinities. As the main creator of public policy, the government should formulate policies that regulate what is represented in media channels. The government can work in conjunction media oversight bodies that have been assigned the duty to regulate what is represented through the media and its effect on society. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) developed a report that presented findings about gender stereotypes in advertising. The report explained that gender stereotypes could harm how both adults and children perceived themselves and thus, recommended the banning of adverts that propagated negative traditional stereotypes and those that mock non-conformance to gender stereotypes (ASA, 2016). This is an example of how the government can collaborate with non-state agencies to regulate media content on negative masculinities.
Another recommendation is for media industries to self-evaluate and initiate corrective actions. This initiative begins at the top where media owners and executive officers should formulate ways of regulation media content that is associated with their organizations. For instance, the executive owners can initiate punitive laws for their media organizations to punish any negative portrayals of masculinities through televisions or films associated with their brand names. On the flip side, they can reward practitioners who demonstrate commitment towards building positive masculinities. Additionally, media organizations’ executive officers and owners can invest in training to educate their staff on how negative masculinity manifests itself, its effects and the role of media in preventing it and changing the status quo. Besides their organizations, they should regulate those of other organizations to ensure that the media industry as a whole is committed towards enhancing positive masculinity. Media practitioners also have a role to police themselves to ensure that at an individual level, their actions and content portray positive masculinities. For instance, actors should restrain from taking up roles that promote negative masculinity traits, such as degrading women or discriminating against other sexual orientations like gayism. Lastly, media curriculum creators should improve the training programs to ensure that future media practitioners are instructed on how to avoid language or symbols that perpetuate negative masculinities.
The last recommendation regards members of the public. Members of the community have the duty to lobby for governments at all levels to formulate policies that regulate the media and its portrayal of masculinities. In homes, parents have the duty to regulate the content that is accessible to their children as these may end up influencing them into adulthood. They could work to instill positive masculine traits among their boys that ensure that the content they see on media stations does not influence how they perceive themselves. Teachers can organize extra curricula programs in schools that work to empower boys with positive masculinity traits. For instance, the school can organize open discussion forums that allow boys to speak about their experiences in the society as men. This will allow them to learn about each other, and establish practical solutions that may be different from what they see in the media. Lastly, boys and men should take the initiative to increase their awareness of masculinities, positive and negative aspects and the effects on their well-being. Today, there exists a plethora of information online as well as physical non-government community resources that have dedicated themselves towards empowering the male population towards respectful and healthy masculinity.
References
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