Reflective Essay:Identify and briefly describe a curriculum approach you align with. Identify 3-5 key aspects of the approach and critique these aspects using at least two theoretical perspectives.

Reflective Essay:Identify and briefly describe a curriculum approach you align with. Identify 3-5 key aspects of the approach and critique these aspects using at least two theoretical perspectives.

The intention of this course is to raise your critical understanding of your chosen curriculum approach through the application of theoretical/perspective lens.

As indicated in the task, you first need to identify a curriculum approach. In the Course Guide in Section 2, we list a range of possible approaches that you may select from – this includes Reggio Emilia, Te Kohanga Reo, Pasifika, Montessori, Steiner/Waldorf and Pikler/RIE approaches. After your introduction, you first present a brief overview of the history of the approach and then say how it aligns with your own values etc., and how it might look in practice. Then the crucial step that will lead to the critique is the identification of three to five key principles/assumptions of the approach. For example, a key assumption of Reggio might be the idea of the environment as the third teacher.

You then examine these same three to five key principles/assumptions according to the theories and perspectives that are discussed in section one of the course guide. These include sociocultural theory, bioecological perspective, critical constructivism, postmodernism, place-based theory and dialogical approach/perspective. You may also choose attachment theory and/or neurological perspectives. You will need to apply at least two of the above perspectives.

For example, if you have chosen Reggio, the first assumption you might unpack/critique is the notion of the environment as the third teacher. This could be examined from a sociocultural perspective, since one of the fundamentals of SCT is the notion of mediation, which may add to your understanding of the environment as the third teacher. You might be able to offer critique of the same principle from another perspective, for example, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological perspective which places such significance on the notion of proximal processes, rather than just on the environment per se.

When critiquing the approach you may notice both areas of similarity with the perspective, i.e. environment as third teacher and SCT’s discussion of mediation, but you may also find tensions, i.e. environment as third teacher and Bronfenbrenner’s proximal processes. It is the tensions that will generate a more critical response since it challenges set assumptions.

Key to all of the above is your research of additional materials/literature to support your understanding of the approach and how you might unpack the assumptions according to the perspectives. Remember to use reliable sources from credible journals and books.

Objectives that need to be met all way to distinction!

Course required readings must be used as well as additional literature to inform your assessment. Reference list must be attached.

Marking criteria

Distinction

Demonstration of an extremely high level of knowledge of content, relevant skills, intellectual initiative and interpretative and analytical ability relevant to the level of the course.

Merit

Demonstration of a high level of knowledge of content, relevant skills, intellectual initiative and interpretative and analytical ability relevant to the level of the course.

Pass

Demonstration of a satisfactory level of knowledge of content, relevant skills, intellectual initiative and interpretative and analytical ability relevant to the level of the course.

Fail

A Fail grade may be awarded in the following circumstances:

1. If the work submitted fails to successfully demonstrate a satisfactory level of knowledge of content, relevant skills, intellectual initiative and interpretative and analytical ability, relevant to the level of the course.
2. Plagiarism, fraud or cheating.
3. If the work submitted does not reflect a genuine attempt to address the assessment tasks and learning outcomes of the course.
4. The quality of work is significantly below the requirements of the course level.

Key things they will look for:

The image of the post has been included and justified

Application of perspectives has been used to critique the approach

Next page is the class room reading go through the pages all the way the end and where it comes up with reading I have attached that as PDF. Reference list needs to have 20-25 references In text as well.

Welcome to Curriculum Approaches. This course is designed to sharpen your critical thinking around the place of the curriculum, the role of theories and perspectives and how the practices which support these are reflective of your own personal beliefs and values as an educator. The course looks at the relationship between curriculum approaches, theories and perspectives, and practices. While established curriculum approaches, such as those discussed in this course, are understood often to be mired in the cultural and historical contexts in which they were developed, theories and perspectives offer the potential to add or provide a critical lens through which to view those same historic curricula. This course also prompts you to reflect on your own values and beliefs and to develop an informed personal teaching philosophy that is reflective of a range of informed theories and perspectives.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.1 Curriculum Approaches, Theories and Perspectives, and the Role of Practice

Professional educators must be able to critically analyse and examine the curricula they work with, otherwise they run the risk of alienating children and their parents if the theories/perspectives that underpin the curriculum are no longer relevant (Barron, 2009; Fleer, 2005). The influences of theories and perspectives are explicitly noted in Te Whāriki (Ministry of Education, 2017), with recognition of the sociocultural theories of Vygotsky and Bruner, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, Kaupapa Māori theory, Pasifika approaches, critical theory perspectives and other emerging theories (see pages 60-62). The following video examines the link between practices, theories and perspectives as well as curriculum approaches.

Knowing that such perspectives are present informs the educators’ understanding of the intent of the curriculum and allows greater critical engagement. Curricula shape not only educators’ relations with the children and whānau, but everything that happens in the early childhood setting. Te Whāriki (Ministry of Education, 2017) supports this notion suggesting that curriculum can be understood as consisting of “meaningful interactions with people, places and things” (p. 12). A critical understanding of the way in which curricula have evolved over history, brings into sharp relief the intent of pedagogical practices that have been designed to promote a specific image of the child as a learner.

For example, a sociocultural perspective will privilege practices that promote social exchange, since at the heart of this perspective is the value of learning through social interactions. Alternatively, the inclusion of a Pasifika approach may promote greater attention to children’s spiritual experiences since a belief in a divine power is fundamental to their early childhood curriculum.

Hill (2011) underlines that the importance of engaging with theory for early childhood educators is that theory determines the kind of everyday practices teachers and students engage in, and that such theories do not need to be limited to a narrow list but can reflect eclectic engagement with a number of complementary perspectives. From a pedagogical perspective, what is important, however, is how such theories and perspectives are translated into everyday practice. This is illustrated in the diagram above. Here is suggested that at the heart are the practices of the early childhood setting. Practices vary from centre to centre and should reflect the intent of the curriculum. If, for example, at the heart of the curriculum there is the value of children as competent and confident, this will change how teachers offer support to children. If teachers understand the image of the child as being competent and confident rather than weak and vulnerable, this will shape interactions with the child. With reference to Bruner, teachers will hope to scaffold the child’s learning and get them to a point where they are able to complete the task with minimal support.

A curriculum approach considers not just how the educator should engage with children and whānau, but also what content is privileged, how assessment is done, and how partnership with parents is held. Curriculum approaches tend to develop over time and often have theoretical perspectives that inform them – for example, the sociocultural underpinning of Te Whāriki (Ministry of Education, 2017). Teaching practices, on the other hand, are what is done in the centres, the actual practice of teaching. All three components are essential when discussing curriculum. A teacher who is knowledgeable about curriculum approaches may be able to articulate their belief, but if they lack the ability to translate it into practice, it would have little relevance to the teacher and the child in the centre.

On the other hand, a teacher who is widely versed on practices, but has little understanding of approaches, may be tied to the immediacy of what they are doing and lack the ability to see the wider picture of what and how the child is learning and developing. Lastly, consideration of contemporary perspectives allow for new insights and considerations to inform critical examination of curriculum approaches and prompts educators to be responsive to societies and communities that are constantly evolving.

The following reading by Hill (2011) examines four specific domains of behaviourism, constructivism, social constructivism and critical perspectives, and encourages the early childhood educator to reflect deeply on how such theories and perspectives shape their practices with children. The point is made that a professional educator benefits from having an informed personal teaching philosophy by being able to advocate to colleagues’ and others’ practices that promote children’s wellbeing. As stated by Hill (2011, p. 7), “early childhood practitioners have a greater choice of theoretical perspectives to choose from than ever before”. While students engage with the following reading, they should reflect on which perspectives and theories are most dominant in their own practice.

Reading

Hill, D. (2011). Theory as story: An invitation to engage with the ideas that nourish practice. The First Years/Ngā Tau Tuatahi. New Zealand Journal of Infant and Toddler Education, 13(1) 7-11.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.2 Sociocultural Theory

A basic assumption in sociocultural theory is that “learning arises out of the children’s activities in the context of interactions and relationships” (Smith, 2011, p. 153). From the perspective of sociocultural theory, “everyday activities in different settings reflect social and cultural practices” and are central to a child’s learning (Smith, 2011, p. 153). This interest in the everyday experiences of young children that is typical of the sociocultural approach is captured in the opening words of Hedges’ (2015) reading: “Children’s interests and thinking emanate from their daily lived experiences in their families, communities and cultures” (p. 83).

Sociocultural theory is credited to Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934). Vygotsky has had a very important and widespread impact on the way in which child development is studied, and upon the way in which children’s development is supported. In particular, he raised awareness of the impact of a child’s relationships with adults and other children on his or her cognitive development.

Vygotsky’s theory “focuses on how culture – the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group – is transmitted to the next generation” (Berk, 2013, p. 25). The society and culture in which a child finds her or himself has particular views on the skills and knowledge that are desirable to develop. The child’s development and the teaching and learning environment are influenced by these views. According to Vygotsky, children “acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture” through social interactions with more knowledgeable members of the community (Berk, 2013, p. 25).

Children develop cultural tools through their social interactions with others, and they apply and internalise them to their own individual thinking (Grimmett, 2014). Cultural tools include language, rituals, ceremonies and social values and beliefs that guide people’s thinking. Each culture has its own unique set of cultural tools.

Vygotsky suggests that different cultures will affect cognitive development differently because they engage in different relationships with children. Rogoff (2003), a major contributor to sociocultural theory in early childhood education, notes that “Vygotsky … pointed out that children in all communities are cultural participants, living in a particular community at a specific time in history” (p. 10). As outlined above, a sociocultural perspective holds children’s learning arises out of activities they participate in, within the context of everyday social interactions and relationships with others (Veresov, 2010).

Smith (2011, p. 153) suggests:

The following reading comes from Rogoff’s seminal publication The Cultural Nature of Human Development (2003). In this reading, many of the most crucial aspects of the sociocultural perspective are laid bare. The focus of this theory is to explain how children acquire the knowledge of societal tools so that they can learn to participate in the shared activities of the social group.

Reading

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development (pp. 50-62). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

A key societal tool which is developed when children are in preschool is language. Language in Vygotskyian terms refers not just to the capacity to talk and communicate with others, but is the basis from which social and scientific concepts are learned. Also integral to language is one’s cultural identity, which is able to find expression in a pluralistic society. A key assumption of sociocultural theory is that the individual development constitutes and is constituted by social and cultural-historical activities and practices (Martin, 2014). The idea that the person and the context in which they develop are mutually constituting is a more radical proposal than Piaget’s one who viewed development in terms of adopting to the given environment (Stetsenko & Arievitch, 2004). Rogoff’s study of children in both Western and non-Western societies led her to the premise that children learn not through the acquisition of knowledge from direct instruction, but that most of children’s learning happens initially, with the support of others, through observation, and then imitation which results in active participation. This radical claim from Rogoff (2003) about learning is captured in the following: “I emphasise that human development is a process of people’s changing participation in sociocultural activities of their communities. People contribute to the process involved in sociocultural activities at the same time that they inherit practices invented by others” (p. 52).

The following reading from Hedges (2015) examines the potential of using the child’s funds of knowledge to inform and shape teaching approaches. Funds of knowledge are those bodies of knowledge that are learnt in the child’s home environment. Funds of knowledge recognise the active role children have in their own learning, and by leveraging these funds, teachers are able to promote learning that is meaningful for the children. Funds of knowledge are a key aspect of sociocultural theory.

Reading

Hedges, H. (2015). Sophia’s funds of knowledge: Theoretical and pedagogical insights, possibilities and dilemmas. International Journal of Early Years Education, 23(1), 83-96.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.3 Bioecological Perspectives of Curriculum

Berk (2013) suggests that Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory is very influential in the study of child development because it attempts to give a full picture of the many aspects of a child’s immediate and wider environment that influence her or his development. Hence, similar to sociocultural theory, the Bioecological Systems Theory gives attention to the social and cultural influences on the child’s development.

Bioecological theory focusses on the environment’s dominant effect in the children’s growth and development. Bioecological theory utilises the information of the children’s environments to describe, organise and clarify their consequences. The leading proponent of bioecological theory is Urie Bronfenbrenner. He posits that the bioecology of human development provides an understanding of how the active, growing individual relates to the environment. Bronfenbrenner focusses on children’s interpretations of their environments, including their perception or interpretation of the activities, roles and interpersonal relationships (Saracho & Spodek, 2006, p. 711).

According to Nixon and Aldwinckle (2003, p. 33) “Bronfenbrenner’s theory is based on the interaction of the individual with the environment and is considered a socio-cultural view of child development”. The bioecological perspective regards children as active beings who interact with and affect the environment in which they live. They bring changes to the environment that they participate in, as much as they are affected by the external environment/context. Hence, the theory explores a range of relationships between the child and his/her environment.

The ecology of human development involves the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which the developing person lives, as this process is affected by relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded. (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 21)

The following reading recalls the contribution of Urie Bronfenbrenner to early childhood psychology. While his theory is most well known for the description of the ecological systems in which we all are embedded and the relations between those systems, the notion that learning happens through participation in “progressively more complex reciprocal activity” mirrors Rogoff’s assertion of learning through participation. As Rogoff spoke about the influence of the person guiding the child, Bronfenbrenner makes the same point, saying that for development to occur on all levels, the child must develop “a strong, mutual irrational, emotional attachment [to someone] who is committed to the child’s well-being and development, preferably for life” (Bronfenbrenner, 1991, p. 2).

Reading

Brendtro, L. (2006). The vision of Urie Bronfenbrenner: Adults who are crazy about kids. Reclaiming Children & Youth, 15(3), 162-166.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.4 Critical Constructivist Theory

Constructivists, including Piaget and Vygotsky, believe that children construct meanings of knowledge through interacting with the environment or with others. Kincheloe (2008) suggests there is much debate over the exact meaning of constructivism. He also suggests that this is as it should be; constructivism is a complex concept, and should not be easily defined. He notes that “we create ourselves with the cultural tools [that we have] at hand. We operate and construct the world and our lives on a particular social, cultural and historical playing field” (Kincheloe, 2008, p. 2). The following video further explains the key ideas of critical constructivists:

Critical constructivists, drawing upon the basic principles of constructivism, argue that “children make their own meanings but not under conditions of their own choosing” (Anning, Cullen & Fleer, 2009, p. 56). So the emphasis here is that children are born into a world and that the world channels their development in particular ways. For instance, their environment may be carefully structured to influence their learning of particular values and ideas. For example, think of the idea of free play. When children are playing without teachers/adults leading the play in the centre, constructivists would suggest that the children are constructing their own meaning about the world. However, critical constructivists would argue that the range of possible meanings that a child can make are limited, and are shaped and/or directed by the environment that has been set up. The role, then, for educators, from this theoretical perspective, is to think about how theue shape the environment in particular ways, and how this impacts on children.

This aspect of children coming into a world with already defined meanings and ascribed roles sui generis is captured in Burke’s (1941) seminal metaphor of the parlour room conversation. This notion of the novice coming into a pre-figured world where their capacity to act is constrained by societal forces is vital for an understanding of critical constructivist theory:

Imagine that you enter a parlour. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending upon the quality of your ally’s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress.

Two key aspects of development that attract the attention of critical constructivism are the knowledge that children acquire and the relationships that they experience. Therefore, two important aspects of child development that critical constructivists focus on are cognitive development and social development. However, like the sociocultural and bioecological theories, critical constructivism does not generally isolate any domains as separate from the others.

… the purpose of education in this critical constructivist process is not to transmit a body of validated truths to students for memorization. Instead, critical constructivists argue that a central role of schooling involves engaging students in the knowledge production process. A central dimension of teaching in this context involves engaging students in analyzing, interpreting and constructing a wide variety of knowledges emerging from diverse locations.

(Kincheloe, 2008, p. 3)

Critical constructivism asks one to consider how children are produced as particular types of people who are members of a society. Importantly, Kincheloe (2008) suggests that interpretation is a key feature of knowledge and that children develop cognitively through interpreting the world. Educators need to understand that what children are doing is interpreting, not seeing the truth, yet the way children interpret the world is shaped by power relations.

For critical constructivists, the focus on power is based on their intention to challenge situations where one group’s values and beliefs are more powerful than those of other groups. A dominant or hegemonic group upholds and reproduces its values and restricts, limits or punishes groups with different beliefs and practices. Hegemonic discourse (the knowledge and language that is used by a dominant group) most often limits or restricts people in the areas of gender, ethnicity, culture, language, social class and sexuality (Anning, Cullen & Fleer, 2009). For instance, feminists would argue that historically, and still today, women have not had the same status as men in society. Women’s voices have been silenced in the past; they did not have the same rights (for example, voting).

The following reading takes a critical constructivist view of the role of gender in early childhood education. Adopting a critical perspective often begins with questioning core assumptions such as the roles males and females adopt as reflective of societal expectations. These traditional views were explored in relation to early childhood teachers and the types of play that occurred in the formal setting.

Reading

Lee-Thomas, K., Sumsion, J., & Roberts, S. (2005). Teacher understandings of and commitment to gender equity in the early childhood setting. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 30(1), 21-27.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.5 Postmodern Perspectives on Curriculum

Over the past decades, an emerging group of early childhood scholars labelling themselves “reconceptualists” has been employing alternative theoretical frameworks to examine the political dimensions of the early childhood sector’s dependence on developmental, structural, and biologically based theories of child development. They argue that the scientific knowledge base of child development, which views children as autonomous, rational, and self-determining individuals, is culturally and gender biased and thus advocate for the use of new theoretical frameworks to inform research and teaching in early childhood (Blaise, 2005).

MacNaughton (2010) suggests that “the term ‘postmodern’ refers both to an era and to a way of thinking about the world” (p. 71). The main eras in Western society include:

Throughout history, there have been particular ways of thinking about the world, much the same as different cultures think differently about knowledge, development and education. The postmodern era comes after the modern era. However, the postmodern era should not imply that the modern era is over, it means that the modern era has transformed in many ways and, for postmodern theorists, the task is to explore this transformation (Peters, 1996).

The word poststructural, like postmodern, reflects a mode of thinking about the world that has emerged from and critiques a previous mode, called structuralism. Structuralism was a way of thinking about the world that attempted to focus on finding universal laws that governed all aspects of life. One famous structuralist in early childhood education is Piaget, whose aim was to find universal laws of the structure of a child’s developing cognition. Both postmodern and poststructural perspectives of the world investigate the modern and structural perspectives; they examine how these perspectives impact on children and adults, and they explore alternative perspectives that might contribute to different ways of living.

According to Dahlberg, Moss and Pence (2007), modern discourses recognise the world as predictable and certain, and child development as singular and universal. In contrast, postmodern discourses see the world as multiple, complex and being socially, historically and politically constructed, where there are no universal ways of child development. They state that, rather than applying definitive patterns, models or theories in early childhood education, people should be adopting a process of questioning, dialogue, reflection and meaning-making in this postmodern era. For example, many indigenous cultures differ significantly from Anglo-American cultures in their conceptions of child-rearing, education and care. Western models of educare, such as developmentally appropriate practice, can become a form of cultural intimidation (Penn, as cited in Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 1999) in which the indigenous culture has to assimilate into the dominant culture and remains subordinate to the mainstream.

Over the century, the responsibility of education has been to fill the mind of the young child with skills and knowledge that are valued by the predetermined dominant cultural values. The responsibility of the child is to conform to and reproduce these values and beliefs, in order to uphold the mainstream culture. In the postmodernist view, “there are many children and many childhoods, each constructed by our understandings of childhood and what children are and should be” (Dahlberg, Moss & Pence, 1999, p. 43). For example, not many children in the world learn through play. Instead, they start formal writing and reading in early childhood, and there are so many children who may have never experienced schooling.

The question of whether or not that is a consistent truth or whether truth is a construct, which in an oppressive system, is constructed by an authoritative consensus is the focus of the next chapter. Foucault was interested in asking questions about power and the influence of the ruling hegemony in creating a false discourse to preserve their own positions. This exercise of power occurs through the eight micropractices of power listed in the reading below:

Reading

MacNaughton, G. (2005). Doing Foucault in early childhood studies: Applying post-structural ideas (pp. 19 – 41). London, UK: Routledge.

Section One: Understanding Theories and Perspectives

1.6 Place-Based Education

Among more contemporary perspectives on early childhood education is place-based education (PBE). At the heart of this idea is the exploration of one’s own community, habitat and cultural identity. This can offer a very rich source of teaching, since by exploring one’s own location, the place name, the local history and the cultural factors, it strongly promotes belonging and group identification. When teachers begin to view their environment as a resource to be utilised in this way, it allows the students to develop a grounding in the history, culture and ecology of their surrounding environment before moving onto broader and perhaps less tangible subjects. The following reading by Penetito (2009) sets out why he views place-based education as an ideal vehicle to “imbue in each student the wonder of learning” (p. 6). Also integral to place-based education is attention to issues of environmental sustainability and resources, and a rejection of a perspective that is mired in neoliberal policies that seek to commodify and exploit natural resources (Penetito, 2009). Place-based education has also found resonance among Māori whose ways of knowing and being were subsumed to the mainstream. Thus, PBE appeals to a way of learning through participation by examining the surroundings.

Reading

Penetito, W. (2009). Place-based education: Catering for curriculum, culture and community. New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 18, 5-29.

Dialogical Perspective of Curriculum

Another contemporary perspective of early childhood education is known as the dialogical approach. Dialogue has the everyday meaning of an exchange between people and relates to the fact that humans are born into and live in communities made up of other humans with whom they constantly interact. Integral to the notion of dialogue is that in a dialogic relationship there is no one in charge, both learner and teacher are equal partners. This allows for the learners to follow issues that interest or concern them, which in turn leads to the raising or posing of questions. In dialogue, the asking of questions is at least as important and often more important than answering them. The dialogic approach is based on conversation rather than curriculum; respect is shown to everyone; people work together and both show and are shown respect. Whereas sociocultural perspectives might seem prescriptive, a dialogic approach view accepts education as open-ended with children as active participants. A dialogical approach holds that there are multiple perspectives and views, and that the child’s voice is at the heart of learning since it is only through attention to their needs to be seen and heard as complex subjects in their own rights, rather than objects to be manipulated.

The following reading explains some of the key aspects that support a dialogical approach to teaching in the early years and looks at the role of the teacher.

Reading

White, E. J. (2015). Introducing dialogic pedagogy: Provocations for the early years (44-75). London, UK: Routledge.

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.1 Reggio Emilia Approach

What children learn does not follow as an automatic result from what it taught, rather, it is in large part due to the children’s own doing, as a consequence of their activities and our resources.

(Malaguzzi, 1989-1991, as cited in Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 2012)

Loris Malaguzzi was born in 1920 in northern Italy and studies pedagogy at the University of Urbino. In 1940 he started to teach in elementary schools in the region of the Apennine Reggiano, before hearing about an innovative project being planned in Reggio Emilia in 1945. Trying to recover from the effects of World War II and with the aim to provide children with a brighter, better and more optimistic future, people of rural origin and workers from within the region were building a new school for their children.

The Reggio Emilia approach was developed in and named after this village in northern Italy and is based on this grassroots initiative developed by the local community aiming to overcome oppression and injustice and fascism. The school’s founder, Loris Malaguzzi, focussed on establishing relationships among teachers, children and families, and making connections with the local community.

Malaguzzi’s philosophy involves “creating ‘an amiable school’ (Malaguzzi, 1993) that welcomes families/whānau and the community and invites relationships amongst teachers, children and parents to intensify and deepen to strengthen child’s sense of identity” (Gordon & Browne, 2014, p. 28). In this environment, teachers are expected to constantly reflect on their practice while listening to children (Gordon & Browne, 2014). The image of the child is one of being “…rich in potential, strong, powerful, competent and most of all connected to adults and other children” (Malaguzzi, 1993, p. 10).

An open curriculum, networks of relationships and the view of the child as a competent learner are three key features of this curriculum approach. The notion of the child as a competent learner has impacted the nature of curriculum planning. Curriculum development is open, rather than fixed, and recognises that teacher planning is not necessarily directly related to learning. The emergent curriculum that results is based on the “…belief that knowledge-building is not linear or predetermined, that the development of knowledge is a group process and that children produce their own theories and hold their own values” (Thornton & Brunton, 2009, p. 87).

In Reggio Emilia centres, a project approach is suggested, where projects emerge from children’s interests and teacher observations of needs and emerging interests, as well as parents’ contributions. The focus is not on the product itself, but on the process involved, which also serves as a vehicle for assessment. The relationships and dynamics around the projects are as important, in terms of learning, as the activity itself. Projects are initiated by a question, which the teacher asks to provoke discussion and outlines what the children already know about a topic. The children’s interests and their discussions guide projects, rather than the activity being teacher-led. In a project approach, planning is crucial as it requires children to be co-constructors of their own education (Gordon & Browne, 2014). The process involved in a project approach is the following:

Facilitator, guide and researcher

teachers and children are partners in learning, with teachers providing interesting experiences and resources, rather than intervening or providing answers.

Documentarian

teachers observe, listen and record projects using various forms of data collection (for example: interviews, conversations, photographs, and artwork). Documentation is viewed as a form of communication and is also used to promote reflection.

Team member

teachers meet frequently to discuss developments and problems, resources required and the direction of projects. One of the distinctive features of the teaching team is a lack of hierarchy.

Thornton and Brunton (2009) identify a number of special rooms that are central features of the Reggio Emilia environment, which are designed to reflect the outdoor areas and restaurants in Reggio Emilia itself. These features should have visibility, flexibility, light and shadow, reflection and multi-sensory spaces. These special rooms are the piazza, the atelier, the kitchen and the courtyard. Each area has a particular purpose:

• The piazza provides a central meeting area in which people can gather and play
• The atelier is the area in which resources and staff are available for creative activities
• The kitchen and dining area are regarded as important for social development and are visible to other areas so that children see the regular routines and activities that surround meal preparation
• The courtyard is an open area that children can access at any time

Malaguzzi defined environment as the third teacher, placing relationships at the heart of it. The following article further explores the emergent curriculum in relationship-driven learning environments, emphasising that environments reflect values, foster creativity, and promote the formation of a positive identity.

Reading

Biermeier, M. A. (2015). Inspired by Reggio Emilia: Emergent curriculum in relationship-driven learning environments. Young Children, 70(5), 72-79.

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.2 Te Kōhanga Reo Approach

Te Kōhanga Reo (which literally translates as “language nest”) highlights the role of the Māori language in the revitalisation and renewal of Māori culture and identity within Aotearoa. The basic policy of Te Kōhanga Reo is to impart traditional Māori values and knowledge to young children, using te reo Māori as the language of instruction. Royal Tangaere (2000, p. 29) acknowledges that whanaungatanga is central to Te Kōhanga Reo approach. She identifies four main principles of Te Kōhanga Reo as “total immersion in te reo Māori; whānau decision-making, management and responsibility; accountability, and health and wellbeing of te mokopuna and the whānau”.

Te Kōhanga Reo centres provide a location and purpose for people of all ages to meet and work together. The Kōhanga Reo kaupapa is powerful in drawing people together to support each other and work towards the ultimate goal of a bilingual and bicultural nation.

(Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust, n.d.)

The philosophy is reflected in the aims of Te Kōhanga Reo:

• Children will learn the Māori language and culture, including the spiritual dimension, through immersion
• Language and cultural learning will be fostered and supported for all members of the whānau and Te Kōhanga Reo
• Members of Te Kōhanga Reo will learn within the whānau setting, a range of skills that support the philosophy
• Collective responsibility for the administration and operations of Te Kōhanga Reo will be fostered through whānau development
• It is essential that all the people involved will develop a sense of being accepted and belonging
• The content, context and control of learning will be Māori

(Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust, n.d.)

Te Kōhanga Reo was designed to promote the values of the whānau, and its philosophy emphasises that education is for life and is holistic in its approach, encompassing cultural, spiritual, social, economic and educational dimensions, which are reflected in Te Whāriki (Ministry of Education, 2017). The following reading suggests a range of ideas on how to include te reo Māori in the early childhood centre’s curriculum.

Reading

In the following reading, Skerrett (2018) discusses her passion for promoting the indigenous language of Aotearoa New Zealand and identifies historical, social and political aspects of language loss in relation to te reo Māori. Skerrett discusses Māori pedagogy, and Te Kōhanga Reo, and invites today’s educational settings to help to revitalise te reo Māori.

Reading

Skerrett, M. (2018). Te Kōhanga Reo: Early childhood education and the politics of language and cultural maintenance in Aotearoa, New Zealand. A personal –political story. In L. Miller, C. Cameron, C. Dalli, & N. Barbour (Eds.), The Sage handbook of early childhood policy (pp. 433-451). [EBSCO eBooks version].
Retrieved from http://www.ebscohost.com/

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.3 Pasifika Early Childhood Education Approach

New Zealand is home to one of the largest Pacific populations in Asia-Pacific region. The 2013 New Zealand Census revealed around 300,000 Pasifika peoples living in New Zealand, which comprises around 7.5 % of total population of the country (Statistics New Zealand, 2014). Pasifika is a broad category encompassing a variety of Pacific Island nations and communities who are linguistically, culturally, and geographically distinct from each other. Pacific peoples refers to:

• Those from the Pacific Island nations who have made New Zealand their home
• Those of Pacific Island parentage born in New Zealand
• Those from the Realm of New Zealand Pacific countries: the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau who are automatic New Zealand citizens.

(Health Research Council of NZ, 2014).

The growth of Pasifika communities in New Zealand resulted in greater demand for specialised early childhood services that focus on language retention, preserving Pasifika cultural values and promoting traditions and practices valued in their home islands.

Language and culture is important for identity for Pacific students in all sectors of education from early childhood to tertiary because they give confidence and high self-esteem to students in the knowledge that they have a place to belong to.

(Amituonai-Toloa, 2009, n.p.).

The retention and transmission of Pasifika identities, language and cultural values was the driver for the emergence of Pacific early childhood education services. The origins of Pasifika early childhood education in New Zealand can be traced to the first Cook Islands punanga reo (playgroup) and Lemali Tamaita a Samoa preschool in the small town of Tokoroa. In Auckland, the A’oga Fa’a Samoa was the first Pacific language nest to be established in New Zealand in 1984 (Leaupepe 2013; Tagoilelagi-Leota & Utumapu-McBride, 2013).

Language-specific guidelines and implementation advice are available for each of the main Pasifika populations. These set out processes, methodologies and approaches to be considered when working with Pasifika children, parents and family (Ministry of Education, 2017, p. 9).

An example of a Pasifika early childhood education service that is underpinned by language and culture are the Samoan early childhood services called a’oga amata. The a’oga amata was pioneered by the active members of the Samoan communities (particularly the wives of church ministers) who saw the critical need in establishing an independent early childhood service for the Samoan children in order for them to have an opportunity to retain their native gagana Samoa (Samoan language) and culture. A collaborative effort resulted in shifting teaching Samoan language just in Sunday schools of churches to a licenced early childhood service, a’oga amata. The curriculum of a’oga amata is tailored to the needs of Samoan children, their aiga (families) and communities and, while being based on Samoan cultural values and traditions, is seen as dynamic and evolving:

 like our fale [house] Samoa, a learning curriculum is never completely built, rather it tends to be flexible in order to accommodate the changing needs of the learners.

(Leavasa-Tautolo, 2012, p. 51) Today in New Zealand, there is a variety of Pasifika (Tongan, Niuean, Cook Islands, Tokelau, Tuvaluan, Fijian) early childhood education services that reflect culture, values and traditions of Pacific peoples. The following reading provides an insightful look into development of Pasifika services, “explores the vibrant and challenging history and significance of Pasifika early childhood education within Aotearoa New Zealand” (Leaupepe & Sauni, 2014, p. 1711), and considers its place and role in meeting the needs of Pasifika children in their learning journey:

Reading

Leaupepe, M., & Sauni, S. L. (2014). Dreams, aspirations and challenges: Pasifika early childhood education within Aotearoa New Zealand. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education, 5(3), 1711-1719.

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.4 The Montessori Approach

Maria Montessori, founder of the Montessori approach, came to education from a medical background. Born to a wealthy Italian family in 1870, her sharp intellect was noted from her early years. Due to such demonstration of competency and capability, she was allowed to pursue education that at that time was afforded to men only. While attending an all-boys technical school, she decided to pursue studies in medicine, which she had to complete by herself, as women and men were not allowed to study together at this time.

Maria Montessori, founder of the Montessori approach, came to education from a medical background. Born to a wealthy Italian family in 1870, her sharp intellect was noted from her early years. Due to such demonstration of competency and capability, she was allowed to pursue education that at that time was afforded to men only. While attending an all-boys technical school, she decided to pursue studies in medicine, which she had to complete by herself, as women and men were not allowed to study together at this time.

Maria Montessori, founder of the Montessori approach, came to education from a medical background. Born to a wealthy Italian family in 1870, her sharp intellect was noted from her early years. Due to such demonstration of competency and capability, she was allowed to pursue education that at that time was afforded to men only. While attending an all-boys technical school, she decided to pursue studies in medicine, which she had to complete by herself, as women and men were not allowed to study together at this time.

Maria Montessori, founder of the Montessori approach, came to education from a medical background. Born to a wealthy Italian family in 1870, her sharp intellect was noted from her early years. Due to such demonstration of competency and capability, she was allowed to pursue education that at that time was afforded to men only. While attending an all-boys technical school, she decided to pursue studies in medicine, which she had to complete by herself, as women and men were not allowed to study together at this time.

Maria Montessori, founder of the Montessori approach, came to education from a medical background. Born to a wealthy Italian family in 1870, her sharp intellect was noted from her early years. Due to such demonstration of competency and capability, she was allowed to pursue education that at that time was afforded to men only. While attending an all-boys technical school, she decided to pursue studies in medicine, which she had to complete by herself, as women and men were not allowed to study together at this time.

The Montessori approach positions children as active learners and is designed to provide freedom within an environment that encourages a sense of order and self-discipline. Children are free to choose activities from a selection of self-correcting materials (materials that work in only one way), but are encouraged to complete one task at a time and maintain a tidy environment.

The environment is an important feature of the Montessori approach. The focus is on the child’s activity choice, and their independence is reflected in the way that activities are presented. Equipment is child-sized and materials are arranged in an orderly manner, within easy reach for children. The environment is arranged so that children can work individually with the materials that are carefully planned and arranged in a particular order by the teachers.

The most striking feature of the Montessori classroom is its materials. Many are made of natural resources and designed to stress the philosophy of learning through the senses. Colour, texture and quality of craftsmanship of the materials appeal to the hand as well as the eye; they demand to be touched.

(Gordon & Browne, 2014, p.332)

The primary role of the Montessori teacher is to observe and guide children, to respond to their individual progress and needs. Another important role of the Montessori teacher is providing a positive learning environment. The teacher adjusts the environment, in response to the observations, by planning materials and activities to develop an atmosphere that inspires learning.

The following reading further explains the role of the teacher in facilitating learning in Montessori settings.

Reading

Isaacs, B. (2012). Understanding the Montessori approach (pp.46-65).
London, UK: Taylor & Francis.

There are numerous assumptions that exist around understanding what Montessori curriculum actually is and how it works in practice. The next reading illustrates how movement is viewed as an integral part of a Montessori classroom and how this part of the curriculum is being implemented in practice:

Reading

Fuchs, M. A. (2014/2015, Winter). Movement matters: Observing the benefits of movement practice. Montessori Life, 36(4), 31-37.

Today, the growing popularity of Montessori education is being observed around the globe. Like any educational philosophy, some points of Montessori approach can be arguable and may not suit some educational settings, Maria Montessori’s ideas expressed in her books, The Absorbent Mind, The Discovery of the Child, The Secret of Childhood, seem timeless. Take time to reflect on some of her statements:

Today, while the world is in conflict, and many plans are afoot for its future reconstruction, education is widely regarded as one of the best means of bringing this about. For, no one disputes that mankind – for the mental point of view – is far below the level that civilisation claims to have reached.

(Montessori, 1949, p.3)

The child is endowed with unknown powers, which can guide us to a radiant future. If what we really want is a new world, then education must take as its aim the development of these hidden possibilities.

(Montessori, 1949, p. 4)

The fundamental principle of… pedagogy must be the freedom of the pupil.

(Montessori, 1965 (1914), p. 28)

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.5 Steiner/Waldorf Approach

Rudolf Steiner was born in the Austro-Hungarian Empire in a small town called Donji Kraljevec, which now belongs to Croatia, in 1861. Due to his father’s profession of telegraph operator, Steiner moved to a variety of small towns in what is now Lower Austria, before his family moved to Inzersdorf near Vienna, where Steiner attended the Vienna Institute of Technology. There he studied maths, science, physics, chemistry, botany and biology on a scholarship from 1879 to 1883. However, Steiner withdrew from the institute without graduating. Before his time at the Institute, Steiner had studied Kant, Fichte and Schelling, the philosophers who shaped German Idealism.

Rudolf Steiner was born in the Austro-Hungarian Empire in a small town called Donji Kraljevec, which now belongs to Croatia, in 1861. Due to his father’s profession of telegraph operator, Steiner moved to a variety of small towns in what is now Lower Austria, before his family moved to Inzersdorf near Vienna, where Steiner attended the Vienna Institute of Technology. There he studied maths, science, physics, chemistry, botany and biology on a scholarship from 1879 to 1883. However, Steiner withdrew from the institute without graduating. Before his time at the Institute, Steiner had studied Kant, Fichte and Schelling, the philosophers who shaped German Idealism.

The school was licensed by the government as an experimental model, with special freedom to explore the four conditions stipulated by Steiner. The school had to be

The aim of the approach is to help the child to develop into a morally responsible, free individual, able to fulfil his or her unique destiny. To do this, the focus is on following and extending Steiner’s ideas on the nature of childhood and the development of the growing human being, which, for education purposes, in particular, is divided into seven-year periods.

(Nicol & Taplin, 2012, p. ix)

Steiner did not only advocate for moral development, he also considered the notion of freedom, explaining that freedom comes from actions, ideas and decisions guided by the ‘ideal’ part of an individual. He said that “every other part of an action, irrespective of whether it is carried out under the compulsion of nature or under the obligation of a moral standard, is felt to be unfree” (McDermott, 1996, p. 72).

The Steiner approach stresses the role of education in assisting each person to find his or her place in life, with a holistic approach that incorporates physiological, intellectual and spiritual dimensions (Gordon & Browne, 2014).  Steiner himself said that pupils are not to simply believe what they are told but encourages them to “think it out yourself, make it part of the contents of your own thought-world” (McDermott, 1996, p. 82). This approach includes identifying the learner’s current stage of learning and development and building from this starting point. According to Steiner, there are three stages of development, each lasting for approximately seven years: early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. Each stage is associated with physical and cognitive changes, with each of these changes requiring different teaching methods (Nicol & Taplin, 2012). Steiner also highlights the importance of viewing the child as a whole and using a holistic approach to education, stating that “the human being possesses three clearly distinguished members: the physical body, the soul, and the spirit” (McDermott, 1996, p. 316).

During early childhood, children learn through doing and are provided with opportunities to develop their physical skills through experience, rather than being provided with the formal instruction associated with later stages of development; learning is more caught than taught (Nicol & Taplin, 2012).

As mentioned, each stage of development is associated with particular teaching approaches and content. Early childhood teachers arrange materials and activities to encourage children to participate in meaningful activities, such as gardening and baking, and encourage imitation through modelling. A range of artistic activities, including painting, singing, stories and crafts are essential for the development of inner creativity and imagination. The use of natural materials and experiences related to the seasons is promoted.

A focus on the seasons also reflects the importance given to the idea that children’s lives involve an experience of rhythm. There is a clear pattern of events each day, to provide continuity and security.

The following reading further explains the key principles of the Steiner approach.

Reading

Nicol, J., & Taplin, J. (2012). Understanding the Steiner Waldorf Approach: Early years education in practice (pp. 13-28). NY: Routledge.

Steiner was a deeply spiritual man and believed that it was necessary to achieve inner transformation through self-development. He founded a spiritual school of thought, called anthroposophy, which requires a person to develop sound morals, control over one’s inner life, harmony between one’s self, nature and society and learn to distinguish between right and wrong from an objective standpoint. Those ideas are evident in his approach to education, as Steiner advocates for teachers to not only support the physical but also the spiritual development of the child, acknowledging the divine within the child. Steiner said that in education “we take part in this work of the spirit and the soul, we continue for man’s physical existence what the divine spiritual forces have begun” (McDermott, 1996, p. 319). Steiner places a big responsibility on educators and urges them to acknowledge their important role, writing the following:

For if you take up educational work knowing that what affects the young child will continue through the whole of life as happiness and unhappiness, sickness or health, then at first this knowledge may seem a burden on your souls, but it will also spur you on to develop forces and capacities and above all an attitude of mind as a teacher strong enough to sow seeds of the soul in the young child which will only blossom later in life, perhaps even in old age

(McDermott, 1996, p. 324)

Section Two: Curriculum Approaches

2.6 Pikler Approach

The Pikler approach began in Hungary in 1946 and was founded by Dr Emmi Pikler (Christie, 2011). Pikler’s theory originates from her work as a pediatrician working with infants and parents in the 1930s (Christie, 2011). One key advocate for Pikler’s philosophy was Magda Gerber who met and worked alongside Pikler in Hungary. After immigrating to the United States of America, Gerber set up the Resources for Infant Educators (RIE) Institute in California (Christie, 2011). As the ideas of the RIE and Pikler approach are so similar they are often grouped together as though they are one philosophy.

Respect is the basic underlying principle of the Pikler approach and RIE philosophy. Both approaches value children as capable and trust infants to develop and explore without adults’ unnecessary intervention (Christie, 2011). Pikler was an advocate for freedom of movement and unhurried spaces where children could explore the environment in their own time (Christie, 2011). Paying attention to children’s cues through one to one interactions is also an important aspect of Pikler and RIE philosophy, as well as continuity of care that has been emphasised in many studies.  The following reading discusses the importance of continuity of care for infants and toddlers:

Reading

McMullen, M. B. (2017, January/February). Continuity of care with infants and toddlers. Exchange, (233), 46-50.

A number of concepts underpin the Pikler and RIE approaches. One integral concept is primary caregiving, also known as the key person approach. Primary caregiving centres on the understanding “that valuable learning is taking place for the infant in crucial routine and care times in which they are engaged with one sensitive and responsive adult” (Christie, 2011, p. 13). Christie (2011) describes that, within the primary caregiving system, “…one teacher takes a lead role in caring for a small group of children” (p. 11). It is the same caregiver that responds to these children and knows their routines for sleeping, mealtimes, and nappy changing, thereby providing consistent and responsive interactions and care. The teacher in this situation also works closely with the parents and family/whānau.

Another important concept in the Pikler approach is freedom of movement. Pikler believed that the infant did not need to be taught how to crawl, sit, stand or walk and that all infants should experience this themselves in their own time and of their own choosing (Christie, 2011; Nicol & Taplin, 2012). Magda Gerber famously sums this up as “never put a baby in a position she cannot get into or out of by herself” (as cited in Hammond, 2009, p. 81). The adults’ role is to stand back and observe rather than interfere (Hammond, 2009). Practically this means providing ample clear space within early childhood settings to support safe opportunities for infants to move at their own pace.

Unhurried time is another aspect of the Pikler approach. The premise of unhurried time is to avoid rushing the child to move faster than they desire (Christie, 2011). Flexible routines at the child’s pace are encouraged and rather than working to a tight schedule of routines, teachers are encouraged to follow the child’s natural rhythm. Utilising the families/whānau knowledge, teachers respond to an infant’s body language, cues and gestures (Christie, 2011).

The Pikler approach also encourages primary caregivers to stay in close proximity when children are exploring the environment. Proximity is sometimes referred to as providing a secure base (Petrie & Owen, 2005), and involves the caregiver offering reassurance as infants explore independently.

In the following reading, Christie (2011) explains the concept of primary caregiving in detail and relates the teaching method to the New Zealand context. Reflect on the implications these ideas have in an early childhood practice with infants and toddlers.

Reading

Christie, T. (2011). Respect: A practitioner’s guide to calm & nurturing infant care & education (pp. 11 -27). Wellington, New Zealand: Childspace Early Childhood Institute.

Section Three: Developing a Personal Pedagogy

3.1 Personal and Professional Values

People hold values, beliefs and an understanding about the world they live in and this affects the way they live their lives. Educators’ values in relation to teaching and leading are influenced by what they believe about themselves as teachers and leaders, their beliefs of how children learn, what learning is important and how they might best work with others. When an early childhood teacher’s practices align with their personal and professional values, there is likely to be increased connectedness (Sandilands, 2016). When personal and professional values align, they help to create high-quality early childhood education.

Conversely, when teaching practice is not consistent with an educator’s personal beliefs and professional values, there will likely be increased detachment, which, in turn, negatively influences their effectiveness and motivation, and also has a detrimental effect on colleagues, children and their families/whānau.

Teaching pedagogy could be understood as practice, guided by education theory, values and beliefs. The term pedagogy refers to early childhood educators’ professional practice, especially those aspects that involve the reasons behind how they build and nurture relationships, implement curriculum decision-making, and their attitude towards teaching and learning.

Each student has the opportunity to reflect on their values and write a professional philosophy of teaching when studying towards their teaching qualification. This personal statement conveys an emerging teacher’s pedagogy and ought to be regularly revised and updated.

In the document Our Code Our Standards, the Education Council New Zealand/Matatū Aotearoa (2017) provides clear guidelines about expected professional and ethical behaviour within the profession of teaching in New Zealand. In findings from their research, Williams, Lin and Mikulec (2016) point out that teachers are “…expected to be model citizens both professionally and personally…” (p. 49), including being accountable to and trusted by all in their local community. It is important that beginning teachers realise the demands on them to be “moral and ethical role models” (Williams et al., 2016, p. 52).

A teacher should be guided by the values of the setting, in every component of their teaching practice. The shared values, as outlined in a centre philosophy, give guidance to teachers and ensure that values are key in influencing how a teacher engages with colleagues, children and their families/whānau. Understanding and reflecting on personal values and “self-knowing” (McCrea, 2015, p. 11) influence professional values and need to be reflected in the values of team members. Shared values aid collaboration and effective communication, by preventing assumptions.

Teachers often have to make decisions, which are undoubtedly guided by their personal experiences and values that are combined with their professional knowledge and conduct. Biesta (2015) sees the teacher first and foremost as a human being, and secondly as an educational professional, who has to be fit to make decisions and one who has a multifaceted task, as education has moved from being a way to transfer knowledge, into a discipline that supports the learner in developing ways of gathering and using knowledge.

Reading

Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75-87.

Section Three: Developing a Personal Pedagogy

3.2 Values in the Curriculum

New Zealand early childhood education is guided by the national curriculum Te Whāriki (Ministry of Education, 2017). There are two curriculas sharing th