Role of Women’s Movement in Promoting Women’s Rights in Africa
Introduction
Gender equality concerns, discussions on women’s empowerment, and the fight for women’s rights have become popular in contemporary society. In the current society, globalization, liberalization, and privatization are invading the political, economic, and social structures. These factors increase marginalization, making women more vulnerable. Consequently, the marginalization has led to the formation of women’s organizations and movements to facilitate a worldwide and a nationwide agenda on gender equity. Women have always risen through women’s organizations and movements to claim and protect their rights. Women’s movements are driving actions that seek to provide a great understanding of the deficiencies and challenges that women face. Moreover, the movements help women ascertain ways of advancing their rights. The paper argues that women’s movements have played a significant role in promoting the rights of women, especially in Africa. The paper begins with a discussion on the theoretical framework of women’s movements. This section explores the theories that justify feminism with the aim of understanding the motivation behind women’s movements. Thereafter, the paper provides a historical background of women’s movements, highlighting the developments, achievements, and challenges. The paper also looks at the place of women’s movement in the twenty-first century and their role in championing women’s rights in Africa.
Theoretical Framework
Various theories try to provide reasons for the emergence of women’s movements and their fight for human rights. The first theory is feminism theory. Feminism is an ideology committed to the liberation of women globally. Initially, the feminism ideology advocated for equality of all humans regardless of the sex (Mohapatra, 2009). This liberal feminism supported women’s entitlement to privileges and rights similar to men because they are humans. The socialist feminism argued that women also needed a social revolution to grant them economic equity. Liberal feminism only focused on legal and political. Later, radical feminism emerged to advocate for equality of women in all spheres include personal and sexual spheres. The radical feminism theorists were against patriarchy. The new feminism wave combines the ideas of other theories. Post-feminism theorists call for the restoration of family values by trying to compromise their patriarchy stand.
Another theory explaining women’s movement is a social action theory. The proponents of this theory argue that gender and structure of women’s lives are significant tenets in the social analysis (Lee & Weeks, 1991). Based on this theory, women’s movements sprung as social movements working to empower women as the oppressed group in society. These movements gained momentum through widespread dissemination of literature, increased the mobility of labor in the wake of industrialization and urbanization. As such, various groups began penetrating the political space with the aim of advocating reforms that protect the rights of women.
Role of Women’s Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries
The fight for women’s rights became more evident in the 19th century. The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 generated a list of economic, social, and political grievances that women faced during this historical period (NWHM, 2019). Women’s movements during this era were fighting for their rights to earn equal money with men and to own property. The 1800s American women’s movements such as the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) aimed at promoting suffrage. The convention settled on a declaration that created the agenda for activism among women. During this period, although women had various moral duties at family, church, and community levels, they had few legal and political rights. Women, especially those in marriages, depended on men to vote, make contracts, and own property. The role of women during this period was to enhance the social status of their husbands. Don't use plagiarised sources.Get your custom essay just from $11/page
The emergence of outspoken women in the 1830s and 1840s started questioning the subservience of women to men and rallied around movements to focus on all human rights, including women’s rights. The women’s movements campaigned for various social reforms of slavery, capital punishment, and prostitution. The Seneca Falls Convention called for reforms on laws on property rights, child custody, equal wages, and divorce. The women also argued that they deserved equal career opportunities in education, law, and medicine.
Education facilitates the process of achieving self-respect. The women’s movements during this period focused emphasized the idea that the well-being of the society depended on the welfare of women. Since women provided education to their children, then education was equally important to them. By the late 1890s, the NAWSA had won the voting rights for women in four states. African-American women also participated in the fight for women’s rights and became abolitionists. Although black women faced discrimination, they started to form clubs to advance their calls for equal voting rights. The women understood that they could only pass the desired reforms if they had voting rights. By 1920, women in the US and in some countries had granted women full voting rights (NWHM, 2019). Currently, almost all countries across the globe allow women to vote.
As the women fought for their voting rights, they also started to fight for their reproductive rights. Margaret Sanger set up a birth control clinic going against the New York laws that prohibited the distribution of contraception. Sanger’s actions made women realize that they are drivers of their bodies and that they no longer need to depend on men for their being. Women grew stronger in their fights for equality in various spheres of life. The fight for women’s reproductive rights also helped change the outlook on women’s health (Nichols, 2000). Women’s movements also managed to change child-birth practices that required them to give birth with medical intervention. By the 1980s, hospitals were drifting from the traditional way to family-centered care that allowed women to stay awake during the delivery process and with their husbands present. The women’s movement in the 20th century demanded enhanced healthcare for women and a culmination of sexism.
Women’s Movements in the Contemporary Society
Women’s movements are increasingly shaping policies, conversations, and practices and are persistently pursuing efforts to protect the rights for all. The changes in the political, social, and economic structures have significantly influenced the perception of society towards women. Today, a considerable percentage of families consider working mothers as either breadwinners or co-breadwinners, unlike the previous centuries. As such, different countries have proposed policies seeking to empower women, giving them a voice in the political, economic, and social spheres. According to Sen (2019), women’s movements have played a vital role in mobilizing and championing women’s rights, gender equality, and empowering women and girls in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Concerns over gender inequality continue to dominate academic and political spheres in the twenty-first century. Recently, the Global Gender Gap Index published by the World Economic Forum in 2017, reveals shocking aspects of the gender gap (Sen, 2019). As such, the United Nations’ post-2015 agenda points to the barriers in the path towards the realization of gender equality. Both the MDGs and SDGs have provided a platform for multilateral transformation, and the human rights-based approach suffices as the consonant principle for advancing the change (Sen, 2019).
The creation of the UN Women in 2010 was a monumental stride in the quest for women’s rights. The movement has pushed for gender equality in the Strategic Development Goals (Sen, 2019). However, the movement has faced significant challenges that have impeded its success. Its inception is typical of limited funding, thanks to the financial challenges of the post-2008 recession. As such, the UN Women had limited linkages with civil society.
Moreover, Women’s Major Group (WMG) has also been an essential umbrella advocating women’s rights. This movement has worked with various Women movements around the world, including Women in Europe for a Common Future and DAWN, to advocate feminism (Sen, 2019). The WMG opened space for women to participate in the Rio +20 and the SDGs that followed.
Today, the presence of the women’s movement is more profound in almost all countries around the world. Despite government efforts to silence women, they continue to intensify their work. Women are increasingly addressing issues such as wages, abortion rights, and political representation in different countries. Women’s movements are expanding their influence across the world. Organizations such as the Global Fund for Women are empowering women through initiatives such as Young Women’s Leadership that mentor young girls for leadership roles.
Moreover, there is an increased mobilization of women to protest against the abuse and murder of women. Various feminist movements, including Women’s Center for Legal Aid and Counseling, Ni Una Menos, and Cooperativa de Trabajo Mujer Ahora, are collaborating with Global Fund for Women to fights for women’s rights in Israel, Palestine, Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay where murder for women is rampant (Global Fund for Women, 2018). These movements are championing freedom from violence and are fighting against violence against women and girls.
Furthermore, the twenty-first century has witnessed increased philanthropy towards feminism. Large funders are now supporting women’s movements globally to empower them and enhance their activities of promoting women’s rights. The Government of Canada, for example, implemented a feminist philanthropy project in 2017, which seeks to fund gender equality globally. Such philanthropic moves will increase the capacity of women’s movements to fight for the rights of women.
Awarding of Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of women’s contribution to fighting against sexual violence is also remarkable development in the twenty-first century in advancing the activities of women’s rights. Nadia Murad, a survivor, steering charge against sexual violence by the Islamic State, received recognition for her relentless efforts (Global Fund for Women, 2018). Moreover, Dr. Denis Mukwege also received an award for his extensive work in the DRC. As such, the Nobel Peace Prize has validated the work of women’s organizations in fighting sexual violence and lobbying for political change.
Creativity is also a notable aspect of women’s movements in the twenty-first century. In many countries, especially in the Middle East and Latin America, governments try to constrain, eliminate, and oppose the developments of women’s movements (Global Fund for Women, 2018). However, women in these countries are finding creative ways to strategize and advance their efforts. Platforms such as Social Media and other technologies offer women opportunities to connect and finding funding channels to support their activities. Therefore, women’s movements are now unstoppable. They will continue to be dynamic in the fight for women’s rights.
Role of Women’s Movements in Africa
Women’s movements across the world have granted women different rights, including voting rights, the abolition of slavery, right to their reproductive health, enhanced health care for women, and equal career opportunities and wages. In Africa, women’s movements have also helped in promoting the rights of African women in various ways. Although women’s movements in the continent aim at empowering and improving the wellness of women, they vary in their timing, effectiveness, character, and influence. Initially, women’s movements in the continent focused on income-generation, home-making skills, and welfare concerns (Orisadere, 2019). Later, the movements started shifting their focus to other areas, including politics. Women’s movements in Africa are based on the feminist empowerment theory. This theory includes the ideologies of both the feminist theory and the empowerment theory. In Africa, social inequality contributed significantly to the inferior status of women. The political, economic, and social powers dominated women leading to social inequality. The feminist theory helps women understand their backgrounds. This theory makes African women aware that society oppressed them while inspiring them to rise up and fight for social change. Women’s movements using the feminist empowerment theory empowers women to fight for their political rights. This action has prompted women to pursue the male-dominated world of politics. Currently, various countries across the continent are recording an increasing number of women parliamentarians.
The National Council of Women’s Societies (NCWS) was launched in 1959 in Nigeria with the aim of improving the welfare of women in the country (Orisadere, 2019). Other objectives of this women’s movement include enhancing the role of women in the political arena. The movement recognizes a substantial number of women from all backgrounds. Although African women have taken part in the development of their countries since pre-colonial periods, society has always belittled them. Women’s movements and groups serve as a pillar for grassroots politics in Africa. The support of women’s movements and the feminism empowerment ideology and groups encouraged women to form political parties and win elections. For instance, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf from Liberia became the first female president in the continent in 2005, and Joyce Banda from Malawi become the second in 2011 (AWDF, 2016). Dr. Inonge Mbikusita-Lewanika started the National Party in Zambia in 1991, and Margaret Dongo formed the Zimbabwe Union of Democrats in 1999. Other women who headed political parties in various countries include Charity Ngilu and Dr. Wangari Maathai from Kenya and Ruth Rolland-Jeanne-Marie from the Central African Republic. The women’s movements in the continent help in voter education, raising awareness about women’s rights, back women vying for elective posts, and lobby legislative institutions.
As discussed above, women’s movements fought for the rights of women to own property. Similarly, women’s movements in various countries are also mobilizing women to protect their pieces of land. For instance, women in North Eastern county of Marsabit in Kenya have formed women’s groups to protect their lands from private investors (UN Women, 2019). Community meetings brought women together to work toward a common solution. The meetings helped all women in the community to understand the consequences of losing their land to private investors. The women mobilized the whole community and took the developer to court. Although the case is still in court, it helped them protect their land and livelihood. Feminism ideology played a crucial role in this case. The women were able to understand the gravity of the matter at hand and realize that they could solve the problem if they worked together.
Post-colonial women’s movements differ from the new women’s movements in Africa. The post-colonial movements worked with the ruling parties. However, the new movements used the feminism theory to form independent bodies with their own leadership, agendas, and finances. These women’s movements use their independent power to campaign for a greater representation of women in government. They demand quotas, improve leadership skills, and ensure the participation of women in policy-making. Women’s movements in Africa enhance the ability of women in various African governments to drive gender transformation policies. Women parliamentarians formed the Ugandan Women Parliamentary Association (UWOPA) to ensure the successful enactment of gender-sensitive laws such as the Domestic Violence Act (Gouws & Coetzee, 2019). In most African democracies, women are still minority making it inevitable to partner with male parliamentarians. In these democracies, women have to partner with men to deconstruct the male privilege and patriarchal systems. They have to convince their male counterparts using the social-action theory that postulates that women are human and deserve to be considered in social analysis.
Women’s movements in Africa use the feminism theory to break the ideology of the feminization of poverty. The patriarchal systems in African society have made a larger number of women to work in the informal sector with no or little social security benefits. With no social benefits such as maternity benefits and unemployment insurance, women became vulnerable. The unconstitutional discrimination against marginalized women contributes to the feminization of poverty. The women’s movements in South Africa used their power to make the country adopt and implement the International Labour Organization Recommendation 204 to transit from an informal to the formal sector (Gouws & Coetzee, 2019). In this case, women’s movements in South Africa use their activism to address inequalities crippling the legal system.
The women’s movements in developing countries, especially African countries, serve as agents of their cultural contexts. The movements apply liberal and socialist feminism to correct gender inequalities. African society uses both legal and cultural systems to defend gender inequalities present in society. Although these movements have been present since the post-colonial era, research suggests that most scholars assumed their contribution. This aspect explains the reasons for little or no information on women’s movements in the post-colonial period. Scholars assumed that all women’s movements were the same globally (Gouws & Coetzee, 2019). They also assumed that movements in Africa stemmed from the modernization process instead of the local context. However, for African women’s movements, the women seek to challenge the plural systems within their local and cultural contexts.
Women’s movements help in challenging the complex tensions within African societies. Women in the continent are bound by cultural, legal, and religious structures that have always supported men. For instance, the Hausa-Fulani women struggle in harsh economic conditions to ensure their survival and survival of their families. The Hausa-Fulani culture and Islam religion have made the women subordinate to men (Gouws & Coetzee, 2019). While the women are subservient to men, most of them are in charge of large households, have their wealth, pursue money-making activities, and can divorce men. As such, the women’s movements help these women understand and fight for their rights as embedded in their culture and Islam law.
The success of women’s movements in Africa has attracted the participation of young women. Previously, most movements were led by women who attempted to redress inequalities within the political, marriage, and work entities. However, in recent years, young female students in learning institutions have taken up the role of fighting for the rights of other women. For instance, young women have used the feminism theory to sell the ‘EndRapeCulture’ and ‘RhodesMustFall’ to fight for their identity and sexuality rights in the country (Gouws & Coetzee, 2019). As such, the focus of the women’s movements in the continent is slowly shifting to capacity building to improve the access of women to resources.
Conclusion
Gender equality and the fight for women’s rights have become popular in contemporary society through women’s movements. Proponents of the feminism theory argue that feminism seeks to liberate women globally in all spheres of life and fight for women’s rights. The social action theory also explains the emergence and role of women’s movements. Women’s movements emerged in the 19th century to fight for voting rights, child custody, and right to own property of women and ensure gender equality. In the 20th century, the movements started campaigning for reproductive rights and enhanced healthcare. Women’s movements in contemporary society are playing a significant role in championing women’s rights, women empowerment, and gender equality in the Sustainable Development Goals. Initially, women’s movements in Africa focused on income-generation, home-making skills, and welfare concerns. Currently, they seek to increase participation of women in the political arena, break tensions in the religious and cultural norms, to lobby legislative bodies, protecting their properties, fighting for their identity, and protecting their sexuality. As such, women’s movements have promoted women’s rights in Africa.