Six Types of Thinking Skills 

Six Types of Thinking Skills

Introduction

With the globalization development, the increasingly interconnected populations, the sophisticated political and economic outlook, and the rapid innovation in technology, the world is posing new and demanding challenges to individuals and societies, in which the interconnectedness and competitive environment makes it even more urgent for students around the globe to be efficient and effective in communication, collaboration, problem solving with people beyond national boundaries. Therefore, school system around the world is rethinking the educational design that can develop and prepare individuals on essential skills and capabilities to be competent citizens to thrive in various problems and negotiate different demands in the 21^st century.

High-order thinking skills (HOTs), one of the core components of 21^st-century skill consortium, is introduced and became a popular concept in world education. It shifts critical thinking skills from low-order learning outcomes, such as rote memorization to high-order learning outcomes, such as analyzing, reasoning, comprehending, application, synthesizing, and evaluation. HOTs emphasizes skills to performance creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, and metacognition. To develop these skills, it is required for individuals to combines different methods of thinking and determines the most appropriate cognitive skills for the given task.

In this paper, six different types of thinking skills are introduced, with two examples illustrated for each of them. The six types of thinking skills are self-explanation, imagery, contrasting cases, problem categorization, ……. The importance of how and why to obtain and master each of the thinking skills will be analyzed.

First Thinking Skill –Self-Explanation

Thinking and learning is a constructive process that requires students to converts knowledge introduced into the skills needed for tasks. This process of conversion is a form of constructive self-explanation. It is a productive and generative skill that deepens learning experiences, and it develops across time.  Self-explanation is conceptualized as a method or skill one uses to fill in missing information, monitor application, and modify the understanding of new information with prior knowledge (Chi, 2000). In a more straightforward phrase, self-expatiation is a thinking technique in which students acquire for intelligence and learning improvement by explaining the learning material to themselves. A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the learning outcomes of individuals who received self-expiation prompts while solving the problem, and the results demonstrate that self-explanation is essential and powerful thinking and learning skills one can acquire in solving the problem and performing daily tasks.

Explanation-based theories suggest that in understanding an example and be able to generalize from it, an individual needs to have a complete understanding of the domain theory. The full knowledge of the domain theory is required for an individual to construct expiations during the process of learning, in which individual needs to overcome the incompleteness of example given by drawing inferences and conclusions from the presented knowledge. This interpretation is supported by Lewis and Mark (1982), in which their study demonstrates that high achievement student reread line in the example while solving a problem, in which it indicates they consult the standards after they have a formulated plan on how to solve the problem, whereas, under-achieved student uses the examples as a way to find a solution that can be copied.

Lewis, Reimann & Glaser (1989) believed that how well individuals learn to think and solve the problem is mainly due to the “completeness,” how they encode the instruction, rather than the efficiency to convert the encoded instruction into a skill. Their study showed that the way individuals learn to solve the problem is attributed to the way how knowledge is encoded from the example exercise, in which individuals who often offer themselves explanations spontaneously for why things happen the way they do will refine and expand the conditions of their thinking and acting ability.

To attain and master this thinking skill, individuals need to place a conscious effort to step beyond and exemplify the presented knowledge to accomplish the application of the solution. Lewis, Reimann & Glaser (1989) suggest that individual examines the explicit explanations while studying the text or listening to instruction. Pryat et al. proposed a self-explain strategy that enhances one’s ability to mater it. They suggest that one must identify and elaborate on the main idea of the information. Then, there should be an attempt to explain each paragraph using the previous knowledge, and this knowledge can be derived from the last theorem or your prior experience of the topic.

Although self-explanation is used to extend the short transfer problems via more intensive cognitive involvement of learners, research suggests that instructors should avoid asking their students to apply self-explanation too early in the learning cycle. Instead, it is highly recommended to use other cognitive procedures, for example, comprehension monitoring, to attain a certain level of competence in the initial stages that would make the use of self-explanation beneficial. Other research suggests that the higher proficiency in which individuals develop their knowledge and skill, the easier self-explanation can be carried out.

One example of self-explanation can be explained in terms of understanding the mathematics concept. When one reads the theorem, “No odd integer can be expressed as the sum of three even integers,” with the proof stated, “there is an odd integer x, such that x = a + b + c, where a, b, and c are even integers. Then a = 2k, b = 2l, and c = 2p, for some integers k, l, and p. It follows that x is even; a contradiction. Thus no odd integer can be expressed as the sums of three even integers.” The self-explanation skill, then, allow one to think: first, this proof uses the technique of contradiction proof. Second, since a, b, and c are even integers, they replace a, b, c with their respective definitions in the formula for x. Third, the formula for x is then simplified. Therefore, no odd integer can be expressed as the sum of three, even integers. In this process, the individual undergoes a mindfulness learning experience with a deep understanding of the science behind each step, which builds a solid foundation for any problems that are based on this concept. 

Another example of self-explanation can be explained in terms of solving a chemistry problem. When the problem is given as “A 0.750 L aqueous solution contains 90.0 g of ethanol, C₂H₅OH. Calculate the molar concentration of the solution in mol·L” One can self-explain to oneself: first, the mole is the unit, and the question asks for concertation. Second, concentration is related to molarity or moles solute/liter solution. Third, to find moles, the mass of moles need to be converted, in which there is a need to find the molar mass. Fourth, to find the molar mass of C₂H₅OH, a periodic table is required. Fifth, Molar mass is 46.1. Sixth, molarity requires volume, and the question already provided the amount, which is 0.750. Therefore, the final answer would be using the following formula to receive a definitive solution of [C₂H₅OH ] = 2.60M. In this process, the individual undergoes a mindfulness learning experience with a deep understanding of the science behind each step, which builds a solid foundation for more complicated problems in the future. 

A study carried out by Berry (1993) demonstrates that students apply the self-explaining method during exams attain 90% accuracy, those who use the self-explaining method after review achieve 68% accuracy, and those who did not affect the self-explaining process at all reach only 27% accuracy.

Self-explanation is essential for an individual to master in the 21^st century. First, it has been demonstrated to foster knowledge acquisition and promote creativity in various domains. It leads to the construction of meaningful learning experiences by investing effort in identifying gaps in knowledge and connecting new information to prior information. Second, research demonstrates that self-explanation stimulates students to be more engaged in analytical and reflective reasoning, which is essential to avoid biases in thinking and knowledge processing. Third, Larkin and Simon (1987, p.75) have proven that self-explanation create means for the construction of inference rule that can be turned into usable skills. Last but not the least, self-explanations in problem solving produces a qualitative constraint network that represents knowledge of solution steps, which it is essential for individuals in fields of science, technology, engineering, and math.

Second Thinking Skill- Imagery

When reasoning about this physical world, individuals sometimes experience the phenomenology of depicting the system’s function (Clement, 1994; Dessa, 1993; Hegarty, 1992). Deception in mental imagery refers to representations and the accompanied experiences of sensory information without a direct external stimulus. These representations are created for one to re-experience patterns manifested in their depictions to induce higher-order relationships. Moreover, it reflects a function shift in problem solving, in which individuals’ situations their reasoning in the imagery structure when they aren’t able to situate their argument in the construction of perceived experience.

Black and Schwartz (1996) suggest that in situations when individuals observe the world and confront a different problem when individuals need to generalize rules, and when the individual fails to carry the state, individuals depicted and modeled the issues in their mind. They conduct their simulations, followed by the application of language to refer their models. Indeed, many researchers have indicated that people reply to depictive models, depicting inferences for enhancing novel learning experiences.

Imagery is useful and essential to master, especially in situations where individuals do not have a formal method for deriving outcomes. It can aid an individual to generate phenomena unknown to a limited collection of rules. Mental imagery can be defined as pictures in the mind or a visual repre­sentation in the absence of environ­spiritual input (Sá, West & Stanovich, 1999). This is not a universal talent; not everybody can conjure up mental images at will. Mental imagery is best expressed during sleep, where an individual may dream of an environment never visited before but still manage to develop mental pictures concerning the situation at hand. Almost every individual has mental imagery capability during dreams. However, it is essential to note that mental imagery is not a skill that most people possess. Sir Francis Galton identified this in the year 1883 when he asked a study group that comprised of 100 individuals, including prominent scientists, to picture their breakfast table (Myers & Dyer, 2006). While some individuals were able to come up with detailed pictorial definitions, some were not able to give any description at all. Mental imagery is closely related to the visual senses, and the two bodily functions have been identified to work close to provide the desired effect.

One example of imagery can be explained in the visualization and the payment of attention to detail in the observed phenomenon. For instance, when trying to depict a mental image of a given incidence, it has been identified that recalling a similar related event and trying to relate it with the current is a suitable approach in the creation and enhancement of mental imagery (Marks, 1999). For example, a student trying to remember a diagrammatic representation of the blood circulation system, during the study process, they should try to view the labeling as if it is done on their bodies rather than on the study material Toplak & Stanovich, 2002). By so doing, this helps in the creation of a mental image that has a longer-lasting effect on the brain as compared to directly trying to remember the depictions as per the image depicted on the reading material.

Another example of imagery could be explained using real-life events, for instance, when trying to get to a particular destination in which the route is not clear. By trying to come up with various relatable visual elements that got observed during the first visit to the venue, then it is possible to work a mental imagery thinking approach that could help one towards reaching their desired destination. For instance, recalling landmarks such as unique buildings, specific paintings, natural occurrences such as water bodies and trees, all these are visual images that could be essential in the creation of a helpful mental imagery thinking approach towards addressing the problem at hand (West, Toplak & Stanovich, 2008). One advantage of the above procedure is that it is not limited to individuals with difficulty in forming mental images of given phenomena as it depends on the ability to recall previously observed events and working the brain back to reach the desired outcome.

To master imagery, there are a variety of approaches that could be used. The most effective method has been identified to be the payment of attention to detail in the observed phenomena. For instance, while studying a particular event, try to note the conspicuous features that stand out in the given material. For example, when studying for a test on a labeled diagram, try to identify indications on the description that stands out and in relation, create a relationship between these parts and the real-life (Blazhenkova, 2013). This helps to enhance the visual- mental imagery relation, which is essential for strengthening mental imagery. For individuals with difficulties in coming up with mental images, creating real-life allusions where they picture the desired mental image goal as having been already attained could also be essential in ensuring that there is continued mastery of the skill.

Third Thinking Skill- Contrasting Cases

            Preparation for future learning (PFL) aims to explore people’s ability to learn new information and relate their knowledge with previous experience to forester thinking (Bown, Bransford, Ferrara,&Campione, 1983). In which it wants to go beyond the boundaries of replicative knowledge (Knowing that) and applicative knowledge (Knowing how), it emphasizes ones’ ability to obtain subjective knowing, objective knowledge, and expertise to judge the cumulative set of knowledge and experiences (Knowing with).

Knowing can be translated as perceptual learning, in which it emphasizes on contrasting cases as the guide to aware of differentiation (Garner,1974; Gisbon &Gibson, 1995). Bransford &Schwartz (1998) came up with the approach in contrasting cases, in which they emphasize on giving learners contrasted examples that reflect the knowledge before providing explicit instruction. Contrasting cases typically involve both comparisons, in which individuals identify the similarities and differences between problems and situations. It also includes a certain degree of self-explanation. They theorized that identifying the similarity and differences among cases would promote attention on learning activities on the most critical information in subsequent, direct instruction, in which it enables a thinking skill that can process data in depth. Moreover, the experiences with constructing cases allow an individual to be aware of subsequent events and will allow them to interprets them; this, in return, affects the formulation of new hypotheses and learning goals.

One example of contrasting cases can be explained in terms of understanding liquor. People who are taking liquor workshops are taught “all bourbon is whiskey, but not all whiskey is bourbon.” Knowing this sentence is not enough to support a new conversation and learning experience. Therefore, one can contrast both items into different categories, such as terminology, taste, the process of making, color, and texture. Taking language as an example, the individual can create more in-depth thinking and learning experience by understanding that bourbon is made in the US as per the international agreement. In contrast, Whiskey is made in other parts of the world.

Another example of contrasting cases can be explained in terms of understanding the biology concept. When learning biology in school, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are an important underlying concept for the learner to follow to progress future learning. When learner applies the skill of contrasting cases, they differ both terms in different aspects, such as prokaryotes cells contain a single circular chromosome. In contrast, eukaryotes cells contain multiple linear chromosomes. Prokaryotes contain little repetitive DNA, whereas eukaryotes contain a large amount of repetitive DNA.

The individual needs to master the ability to contract cases as a required thinking skill in the 21^st century. Contrasting examples allows the learner to differentiate significant problems and situation features. According to theories of perceptual learning that comparing problems can promote learners to differentiate critical shared features from otherwise alluring (Schwartz & Bransford, 1998). Research indicates that the ability to contrast cases support learning better than single example learning, in which it forester deep learning. A study conducted by Bransford &Schwartz (2015) demonstrated that contrasting cases better prepare individuals to learn new information than it is with summarizing the text. When individuals contrast the instances, they compare their thinking with that of others, including an expert in the areas. This sets the stage for individuals to appreciate the critical features of new information that is presented to them. Schwartz and Moore (1998) have demonstrated that the contrasting cases promote students’ learning in mathematics. In their study, they have shown that if students are given chances to differentiate the elements of the variability of standard deviation formula, students appreciate the formula for standard deviation more. When students undergo a process of knowing the quantitative properties of distribution should be taking into account, the student is shown to include more critical thinking ability and strength.

To develop and enhance these thinking skills, researchers have developed several preparation methods in which to aid learners in contrasting cases. Several experimental studies (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Gentner et al., 2003; Kurtz et al., 2001) suggests that the most prevalent type of methods is to combine different cases with prompts that require learners to compare the claims on their own. For example, Branford &Schwartz (1998) gave learners with data sets from experiments on memory as contrasting cases and prompted them to recognize the revealing patterns before requiring them to read an expository text about principles and concepts that were composed of similarities and differences among the cases. Loibl and Rummel (2014) recommend learners should identify not only the similarities and differences but also invent solutions and explanations. For example, in the study of Glogger et al. (2013), he helps learners to understand elaboration strategies by asked them to contrast cases and invent generic evaluation criteria for the given procedure, which is proved to have great success.

Fourth Thinking Skill- categorization of problems           

Research suggests that much of problem solving ability lies in the capability to establish a correspondence between external and internal models quickly. More particularly, research has demonstrated that categorization plays an essential role in problem solving. The ability to categorize problems with underlying principles, rather than given contexts, is considered a hallmark of expertise in any problem solving，especially in physic related problem solving. In a classic study by Chi et al. (1981)，a categorization task was used to assess introductory physics student in comparison expertise in physic, the result suggests that introductory student categorized problem in linear thinking, whereas, the experts who categorize them are based on the physical principles involved to solve them.

In cognitive psychology, categorization is closely associated with the function of learning, organizing, and storing information. It is proved that it enables individuals to process the vast and complex amounts of data with the least amount of effort, in which by grouping what is known together to identify the possibility for the unknown.

One example of categorization can be explained in terms of solving the physics problem. In a set of the issues listed below:

• An object is dropped, with no initial velocity, above the surface of planet Big Alpha and falls 13.5 meters in 3 seconds. The radius of planet Big Alpha is 5.82×10⁶ What is the acceleration of the falling object?
• A 1500 kg satellite orbits the Earth at an altitude of 2.5×10⁶ What is the orbital speed of the moon?
• A man walks 7 km in 2 hours and 2 km in 1 hour in the same direction. What is the man’s average speed for the whole journey?
• John drove South 120 km at 60 km/h and then East 150 km at 50 km/h. Determine the magnitude of the average velocity for the whole journey?

During the thinking process, the learner categorizes these four questions into two general physic categories, in which the first two questions are gravity-related problems. In contrast, the last two items are velocity and speed problems. With this categorization, the learner can efficiently determine similar problem solving strategies and formula for different issues.

Another example of categorization can be explained in terms of studying social sciences. When learner hears the words “types of social sciences,” the learner may surmise that the problem may fall under the following categories: anthropology, sociology, social psychology, political science, and economics. Then, when the learner hears the words “GDP of Burma,” the learner would surmise that the problem may associate with economic and sociology in a developing country. The thinking ability in question categorizing, therefore, allows a learner to narrow down the broad information into essential and related information.

It is essential to enhance and master the skills of categorizing problems because categorizing various problems based on the similarity of their solutions is a powerful thinking skill one can attain to promote efficient learning. Moreover, research demonstrates that the categorization of the question as a type correlates with possible solution strategies and can directly influence one’s ability to generate successful outcomes (Schoenfled &Herrman, 1982). It helps the learner to interpret and understand the abstract principles and make a conscious effort to build a coherent knowledge structure. Research suggests that categorization skills can aid learners using knowledge hierarchically to form success problem solving strategies because the student can focus on similarity of difficulty based on the underlying principles.

To enhance and develop individuals’ thinking skills on problem categorization, there is a needs to develop cues on the features of the problem. Patterning practice is essential in problem categorization; it aids problem categorization by encouraging the individual to understand how sets of issues are resented and analyzed. A method of cluster analysis allows individuals to know how and why to group a set of questions in the same category. This, in return, aid the development of problem categorization.

Fifth Thinking Skill- Monitoring Comprehension  

Monitoring comprehension is the process in which a student determines whether or not they have understood what they are reading at any given time (Flavell, 1979). The ability of the students to critically think and reflect upon what they have learned is fundamental for learning and improving the academic performance of the students. Comprehension of text is a complex cognitive ability that includes different processes and skills, such as (a) linguistic competencies including syntactic and lexical knowledge; (b) integration of information derived from shared experience and prior knowledge; (c) ability of the student to make inferences; (d) filtering of information to process only relevant information; (e) motivation of the readers; (f) cognitive abilities of the reader (Mirandola, Ciriello, Gigli & Cornoldi, 2018).

One of the essential lessons of preparation for future learning (PFL) emphasizes on comprehension monitoring (Bransford & Schwartz, 2015). It suggests that individuals who actively monitor their current level of understanding are more likely to improve their learning and receive desirable outcomes. Thus, helping the learner to develop well-differentiated knowledge with an agreement in self-assessment is an essential part of preparing them to be competitive in the 21^st century.

Most of the successful student readers have developed the art of intuitively monitoring their comprehension. However, the students who struggle with their reading may not realize a breakdown in their understanding, or if they do, they do not understand the strategies that they can use to fix the comprehension breakdown. When they are asked whether they read the course material, such students say yes. They may have decoded every word but may not have comprehended what they were reading. Successful comprehension monitoring may depend on the individual differences of students rather than the reading ability of the students. This is in the sense that there are some students who, due to their personality, may not admit to themselves that they have failed to understand certain concepts during their reading. These students will not ask questions because of the fear that they will appear stupid. In addition, there are personality traits, such as closed-mindedness and dogmatism, which may make learners jump into conclusions without careful thinking and analysis of the content that they have been reading.

An example of monitoring comprehension is to stop at the end of a paragraph of a given text that the students were reading. The teacher should then ask the students to think whether the information that has been presented to them has been understood. For instance, if the paragraph was about earthquakes, the students should be asked whether they have fully understood the concept. In addition, the teacher should allow for reflection in which the students provide their previous understanding of the idea and the current knowledge after they have read the paragraph on earthquakes. Through this, the students will be able to reconstruct information related to earthquakes and engage in critical thinking and analysis, which helps improve their comprehension of the text.

The other example is clarifying the purpose of reading. In this case, students are taught how to recognize the words or phrases that they do not understand and take the necessary steps in order for them to restore the meaning of the words or phrases (Anderson & Kaye, 2017). Through this process, the learners are actively involved in the reading as they can monitor their comprehension as they read. The benefit of clarifying the purpose of reading is that it helps students understand that there may be sections of text that may be difficult for the student to understand. Through this, students can learn to ask questions and visualize the book in order to make it more comprehensible. A good reader can proceed quickly and smoothly as long as the reader understands the material. However, when the reader senses that there is a missing idea or information, the reader loses track and brings the process of comprehension to a halt (Silverman et al., 2014).

The process of monitoring comprehension involves learning and developing the thinking that one does as they read. This means first understanding that proficient readers do think while they read. One of the strategies in which children and learners can learn this skill is through the use of interactive read-aloud. This is where the children and learners read picture books that explore different themes that are related to children’s lives and have illustrations that can capture the attention of young readers. The young learners should be given the opportunity of working in groups so that they can work through their ideas and write their thinking.

The above strategy can be used over and over with poetry, fiction, and nonfiction. This can help in improving the vocabulary of the children since it exposes them to many words, text features and structures, universal themes, and literary devices. At the end of the lesson, the teacher should allow the students to recognize what they have not understood. This is the process of developing self-awareness. The students can have reflection journals that help them reflect on the concepts and improve their understanding of the concepts. This can be integrated with a “wrapper” that is a short intervention around an existing activity. For instance, before a classroom activity, the students can be taught about active listening. The students can then write down the ideas they have gathered from the lecture and then self-check whether they have achieved the intended goals and objectives. This is an activity that can help improve learning and comprehension monitoring.

Sixth Thinking Skill – Remembering and recalling

Outlined as the final thinking skill, remembering and recalling refers to a critical aspect of our mental capability as well as our brain function ability to bring events to mind’s awareness that we have previously witnessed or experienced in various life experiences. The ability to remember or recall various phenomena is dependent on multiple factors of the brain, such as the mental health status of the brain, which is affected by multiple factors. For productive remembering and recalling skills, the observation of behavior that is likely to promote mental health is essential. Most of the brain functions are dependent on one’s ability to remember events and occurrences in the particular order in which they happened or occurred. Although different from memory, recalling is heavily reliant on the mind as this is the primary storage in which information is stored and also facilitates the retrieval of this information.

Most of what human beings remember is through direct retrieval. Information could be stored in two different brain sections depending on the type of encoding that is used in the information storage. Information that is remembered as a result of constant practice, as well as use, is stored in long-term memory. Information stored in this sector is relatively easy to recall and remember given that there is an improved and developed brain function that helps in the quick access of the information stored in this section of the brain memory. On the other hand, information that has not been well memorized or understood is stored in short-term memory. Unlike the information in the long term memory, data stored in the short term memory is relatively challenging to remember and requires the proper utilization of ones remembering and recalling skills. To enhance this, there is the necessity for constant practice that ensures the information gets stored in the long-term memory, which is essential for the purpose of remembering and retrieval of information.

There are various factors that may affect the effectiveness, accuracy, as well as the ability of the brain to engage in the recalling and remembering thinking skills. These may include factors that may put the mind at risk of healthy wellbeing and function ability. Among the most common of the above factors include; traumatic brain injuries that may occur as a result of damage to the brain organ. As a result, the thinking skill may be adversely affected, whereby it becomes difficult for the afflicted individual to engage in the remembering and recalling thinking process. Another critical factor that has been identified to affect remembering and to remember thinking skills is the occurrence of amnesia, which may be a temporary or permanent occurrence in the brain, depending on the severity of the causative factors. Remembering and recalling are essential thinking skills that facilitated the proper brain functions in the involvement in other complex brain functions.

An example of the application of the remembering and recalling skill is in the retrieval of information stored in the brain during a studies test. The ability of the learner to remember as much information as required depends on their remembering and recalling skills. In the case of the trial, well-understood information has been identified to be more easily remembered as compared to report that the learner is yet to understand the underlying concepts behind the data correctly. For instance, in a mathematics class, the equation of a straight line is represented in the form, y= MX + c. This basic form of the equation doesn’t change even in advanced levels of learning. As a result, a learner in a superior level of education may be in a position to easily recall and remember the above equation as compared to the Schrodinger wave equation, which is a more sophisticated form of other combined equation derivatives.

Another example of the application of the remembering and recalling thinking skill is in the visiting of a known destination that has been previously visited before. To be able to return to this destination for a second or third time, there is the necessity to remember and recall the exact geographical location of the intended final destination. The ability to move from the current situation and accurately to the proposed last venue location is dependent on the remembering and recalling skills of the given individual. In the event that one gets lost in the attempt to move to a particular destination, then it is possible to infer that they are experiencing difficulties in their ability to remember or recall activities or events.

There are various approaches that have been identified to be essential in assisting in the enhancement of one’s remembering and recalling skills, with the most effective being constant practice or repetition of desired event or outcome. Through continuous repetition, it is possible to facilitate the storage of information into the long term memory, which is the most effective type of memory storage that allows for the quick and easy retrieval of the stored data. Another approach that may be essential in the mastery and development of remembering and recalling skills is in the maintenance of proper mental health. This could be achieved by avoiding any causative agents of poor mental health, such as drugs and substance abuse. Physical exercise is also another measure that could get adopted to help in mastery of remembering and recalling skills.

Conclusion

In self-explanation, learners who often offer themselves explanations spontaneously for why things happen the way they do will refine and expand the conditions of their thinking and acting ability. In imagery, In Contrasting Cases, learners are required to examine the problem and solution side by side, in which it is proved to foster an appreciation of deep structure, transfer, and preparation for future learning. In the process of monitoring comprehension, the learner develops the ability to understand the explained concepts clearly. Remembering and recalling is essential in that it facilitates the retrieval of the stored information for application purposes.

References

Kozhevnikov, M., Kozhevnikov, M., Yu, C. J., & Blazhenkova, O. (2013). Creativity, visualization abilities, and visual cognitive style. British journal of educational psychology, 83(2), 196-209.

Marks, D. F. (1999). Consciousness, mental imagery, and action. British journal of psychology, 90(4), 567-585.

Myers, B. E., & Dyer, J. E. (2006). The influence of student learning style on critical thinking skills. Journal of Agricultural Education, 47(1), 43.

Sá, W. C., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (1999). The domain specificity and generality of belief bias: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill. Journal of educational psychology, 91(3), 497.

Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002). The domain specificity and generality of disjunctive reasoning: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 197.

West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2008). Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 930.