The impact of Role Overload and Alcohol Consumption on Happiness: A Mixed Method Analysis.

The impact of Role Overload and Alcohol Consumption on Happiness: A Mixed Method Analysis.

 Abstract

The purpose of this study was to understand and investigate the consequences of role overload associated with alcohol consumption on perceived happiness in white ethnic individuals above 18 years. In the current study, different survey instruments were used on the participants to collect data on alcohol consumption, role overload, and overall happiness and participated in semi-structured interviews. Results from quantitative analysis concluded that role overload and alcohol consumption were negatively associated with happiness. However, role overload was the only determinant of overall happiness. A thematic analysis was used to identify key themes in qualitative data. The main theme was stress at workplace and

Three subthemes were defined as related to role stressors, negative impacts on life domains, and alcohol as a negative coping strategy. So, Efforts should be geared to ensure that individuals provided with sufficient resources to meet their role demands. The paper also discusses limitations to the research and possible future research directions.The impact of Role Overload and Alcohol Consumption on Happiness: A Mixed Method Analysis.

Successfully completing both work and non-work responsibilities bring about varying effects on individuals. Individuals have the will to succeed in multiple role demands during their lifetime because by doing so, they harness different psychological benefits such as financial stability and increased self-esteem. (William & Alliger, 1994). However, one may have to pay for the cost that comes with the roles when the demands become overwhelming, and one is unable to complete the assigned workload within the specified time. Whenever individuals experience role overload, this will lead to decreased physical and psychological energy of the individual and the experience of tension and depression in life ( Beehr et al., 1976; Duxbury & Higgins, 2012 and Schmidt et al., 2014). The World Health Organisation predicts that by 2030, depression will be the world’s leading disease burden (WHO, 2008).

Therefore, role overload is a growing social concern. Role overload has too much work to do within a specified period of time or not having the necessary skills to do the work. (Goode, 1960 & Coverman,1989). There is an abundance of research investigating the undesirable consequences of role overload on people’s wellbeing across different life domains and different occupations. Previous studies reported that role overload has greater negative impacts on working women and single parents because of the various roles they play in the organization and family, and it is becoming too difficult for them to meet the demands of each role and lead to fatigue and imbalance. (Pleck et.al, 1980; Marks & MacDermid, 1996; and Higgins et.al, 2010). As the difficulty of work and family roles increases, marital happiness and satisfaction are also negatively affected. (Rogers & Amato, 2000; Hughes et.al, 1992). According to Beehr et al. (1976), Latack (1981), Kemery et al. (1987) and Winfield (2000), research has connected role overload to a variety of dysfunctional outcomes for the occupational stress on personal wellbeing such as dissatisfaction, anxiety,  burnout, psychosomatic symptoms and lowering productivity which is turn in showing withdrawal behaviors such as reducing affective commitment, absenteeism and increase turnover.

In addition to that, Role overload has also been found to be significantly related to some signs of stress reactions such as excessive drinking. As to cope with high levels of role overload, the individual may consume higher levels of alcohol, which in turn negatively impacts the health and wellbeing of the individual (Abbey et al., 1993).

There is an extensive literature on its hazardous effects on psychological wellbeing and mental health. Adults with alcohol abuse are increasingly likely to have major depression, anxiety, and phobias ( Cargiulo, 2007, Boden & Fergusson, 2011; Van Lente et al., 2012 & Makela, 2015)

Interestingly, there are a lot of studies showed that mild to moderate drinkers reported improvement in their mental health, increased in perceiving life satisfaction, enhanced sociability, and more productivity when compared to abstainers and heavy drinking individuals. (Cooper et al. 1995; French; Zarkin 1995 & Kopp & Massin, 2014).

From this point of view, it is possible to say that role overload and alcohol consumption are closely linked with psychological wellbeing. Keenly monitoring the psychological variables that affect the psychological well-being of individuals is important. Happiness is one of the psychological variables and defined as the personal experience of joy, satisfaction, meaningfulness in life, and being more successful in interpersonal relationships Lyubomirsky, 2001 and Diener & Seligman, 2002).

A gap exists in the literature on the relationship between role overload, alcohol consumption, and happiness. Therefore this study focuses on filling the gap by examining the relationship between role overload and alcohol consumption and their impact on an individuals’ perceived happiness. As many of the existing workload and stress research heavily depends on the results from questionnaires that constraint the understanding of the complete nature of workload and drinking habits. Therefore, face-to-face interviews were conducted in this study to complement questionnaire instruments to give in depth exploration of individuals’ thoughts about work stress, their levels of alcohol consumption and reasons for drinking habits and their effects on happiness (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

This study will test the following hypothesis:

H0: there will be no correlation between role overload, alcohol consumption, role overload, and overall happiness.

H1: increased role overload and higher alcohol consumption combined, will have a negative correlation with overall happiness.

Method

Design

The study employed a mixed-methods cross-sectional approach. The cross-sectional is quick, inexpensive approach and was suitable for this study because it would test the exposure of the two predictive variables of this study ( the value of both role overload and alcohol intake ) and the prevalence of the outcome variable (the value of happiness) at the same time (Setia, 2016). Quantitative data shall be collected via individuals participating in online questionnaires in relation to work overload, alcohol intake, and their perceived happiness. The study shall make use of Qualtrics for the initial quantitative phase of the study.

The study also comprised of qualitative data that shall be collected through face to face interviews. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data that can be analyzed to identify specific themes and their relationship using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is an effective approach for generating insights and reveal deeper individual’s ideas and opinions using simple interview questions (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

Participants

GPower calculation was used to determine the exact number of participants needed (for a medium effect, .80 power, and probability set at .05). Participants in this study were 64 individuals who were recruited online through Facebook and similar online forums in a voluntary way. There were 33 women and 31 men and were of white ethnicity. All participants were above 18 years, clinical population, and people that suffered brain damage were excluded from participating in this study. Out of 64 participants that completed the questionnaire, two males and two females were randomly selected to participate in semi-structured interviews.

Materials

This study utilized the full alcohol use disorder identification test (AUDIT ) that consists of 10 questions. AUDIT was developed by the World Health Organisation, and it has proven to be a useful tool (WHO) (Public Health England, 2017). Participants rated their response to this question on a 4-point scale ranging from 0= Never to 4= Daily. Sample questions ” How often have you had six or more units if female or eight or more if male, on a single occasion in the last year?” and ” Have you or somebody else been injured as a result of your drinking?”

Role overload was measured using the 6-item unidimensional scale from Thiagarajan et al., (2006). The scale has shown excellent internal reliability, and its Cronbach’s alpha equals .87- .89 (Thiagarajan et al., 2006). Participants were asked to rate each item by choosing a number between 1 (Never) to 7 (Always). Sample items, “I do not ever seem to have any time for myself.” and ” I cannot ever seem to catch up.”

 The third instrument (outcome measure ) is the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire  (OHQ), it is devised as a broad measure of personal happiness (Hills & Argyle, 2001). The scale consists of 29 single items, and respondents answer each item on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 6= strongly agree, and the difference between each point treated as equal so the data would be considered as interval data and therefore multiple regression analysis was performed to analyze the relationships between three variables. OHQ is proven to have high internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha equals .91 (Hills & Argyle, 2001). Example of items like “I feel that life is very rewarding” and ” I don’t think I look attractive.”

The procedure used for the interviews was semi-structured. The questions were open-ended and were prepared to get the participants involved in the topic and share their own experiences. The questions were designed to acquire in-depth descriptions of their workload and drinking habits. The researcher must avoid asking leading or bias questions. (Willig, 2008). The questions were, “ How is your work management, and do you feel stressed being there? ” And “Can you tell me something about your drinking habits? ”

Procedure

For the quantitative part, Qualtrics hyperlink for the questionnaires posted on Facebook and other online forms’ owners. The hyperlink leads the participants to the information sheet that consists of the aims and procedures of this study. Then they completed a consent form. To keep the data anonymous, participants asked to create a unique ID that consisted of the last three letters of their surname. To avoid any order effects, Participants then be asked to complete the three surveys. Following the completion of the questionnaires, the participants asked if they wanted to participate in face to face interviews relevant to the topic and then thanked for their input and provided with a debrief sheet online.

Participants, who expressed interest in doing a face-to-face interview, would be contacted by email and provided a date and location of the interviews. They were four participants (two males and two females). The interviews were conducted at the University of Ashford, USA, and carried out by an interviewer (male) and co-interviewer (female), both were members of the Ashford research team. The objectives of the study and the interview format to be used were briefly explained to the participants. Each participant allocated 60 minutes to be interviewed individually, including the time required to discuss the information sheet and sign the consent form. The consent form included the consent for a recording of the interviews. All sessions were recorded using simple recording apparatus and then transferred to a computer for transcription. In the end, the participants were thanked and provided a debriefing sheet.

Results

Quantitative phase: Results

The data was examined to see whether it meets parametric assumptions. Following subsequent calculations, z scores for skewness and kurtosis of alcohol consumption, role overload, and overall happiness fall within the range of -1.96 to +1.96. +/- 1.96 was chosen because the data has less than 100 participants. Moreover, The Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilks were not significant (p>.05), Meaning that the data does not deviate and meets the assumptions of normality. There were no outliers in the data, as assessed by inspection of a boxplot. An analysis of standardized z scores indicates that all variables were within the +/- 3.00 range.

Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable, N= 64, as shown in table 1. Alcohol consumption score ranged from 12.00 to 30.00 (M = 21.48 , SD = 4.28 ). Alcohol consumption scores were normally distrusted with skewness of 0.01 (SE = 0.30 ) and kurtosis of -0.54 (SE = 0.60 ). Alcohol has skewness z-score of 0.03 and kurtosis z-score of -0.91, both of which fall within the +/- 1.96 range to meet the assumptions of normality.

Role overload score ranged from 19 to 89 (M = 56.34 , SD = 17.59 ). Role overload  scores were normally distrusted with skewness of -.11 (SE = 0.30 ) and kurtosis of -0.63 (SE = 0.59 ). Role overload has skewness z-score of – 0.38 and kurtosis z-score of -1.06, both of which fall within the +/- 1.96 range.

Perceived happiness scores ranged from 56.00 to 72.00 (M = 63.50 , SD = 3.70 ). Happiness scores were normally distrusted with skewness of 0.02 (SE = 0.30 ) and kurtosis of 0.23 (SE = 0.59 ). Happiness has skewness z-score of 0.06 and kurtosis z-score of 0.39, both of which also fall within the +/- 1.96 range.

Alcohol, role overload, and happiness have a K-S significance value of 0.06 (6%), 0.20 (20%), and 0.20 (20%), respectively. All the three variables have S-W significance value  0.08 (8%), 0.36 (36%) and 0.08 (8%)  respectively. All K-S and S-W significances are greater than 5% (p> 0.05).

A correlational design was used to examine if alcohol and role overall predict the overall happiness. Correlations between the predictor and outcome variables are shown in Table 2. The results showed a significant negative correlation between alcohol and overall happiness (r = -.26, p<.05) and a significant negative correlation between role overload and overload happiness (r = -.32, p<.05).

Table 2: Correlation coefficients (and significance levels) for alcohol, role overload, and overall happiness

Data were analyzed using a multiple regression using the Enter Method to ascertain the extent to which alcohol and role overload predict the overall happiness. There was the independence of residuals, as assessed by a Durbin-Watson statistic of 1.73. There was linearity as assessed by partial regression plots and plots of studentized residuals against the predicted values. There was homoscedasticity, as assessed by visual inspection of a plot of studentized residuals versus unstandardized predicted values. There was no evidence of multicollinearity, as assessed by VIF values greater than 0.10 (1.02; 1.02).

The regression equation produced a medium effect size (R² = 0.15, adjusted R² = 0.12), indicating that alcohol consumption and role overload scores were a good predictor of perceived happiness (F_{(2, 61)} = 5.48, p = .01), alcohol and role overload was accounting for 15% variance in the overall happiness.

There was a significant negative relationship between role overload and overall happiness (t₍₆₃₎ = -2.44, p = .02), with the model predicting that one-unit change in role overload would result in .06 decrease in overall happiness. Alcohol consumption had an insignificant negative relationship with perceived happiness. (t₍₆₃₎ = -1.86, p = .07). The results indicated that only role overload is a significant predictor of perceived happiness. Alcohol consumption is not predictor on its own, but when combined with role overload is a significant predictor as indicated with F-test.

Qualitative phase: Results

Data analysis followed the thematic analysis method. The stages of thematic analysis method were getting familiar with the data, generating initial relevant codes, searching for meaningful themes by organizing the codes into groups, reviewing themes in which the researcher check the relationships between them, and then defining themes which involve generating clear definitions and names for each theme. The last stage was writing a detailed analysis of each theme and how it fits into the overall data analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

The main theme: Stress at the workplace:

Stressful and negative feelings tend to pile up at the workplace as a result of demands from the bosses that are way above the ability of an individual. This high demand may lead to unproductivity and negatively impact the overall health of the individual. This theme was divided into three subthemes:  job key stressors, negative impacts on life domains, and alcohol as a negative coping strategy. The relationship between these and the theme is displayed in figure 1.1 below. These sub-themes will be discussed in detail in the following sections.

Figure 1.1: the themes and subthemes

Subtheme 1: job key stressors

There were several key stressors reported in the interviews. Lack of resources seems to be one of the major sources of role stress within organizations. For example, having less workforce will leave the employees handling too much work within a little time. This will force them to arrive early at work, stay until late, and even work during the weekends. This schedule exhausts the employees making them feel as if they don’t have control over their lives. The shortage of human resources seemed to be a key stressor and had caused the interviewees to feel overwhelmed as the amount of work will divide upon a few staff. As the participants expressed that in the following way:

“We are short [staffed] so two people cannot go on holiday at the same time, so it’s such an inconvenience.” (P1).

“I was working during the week, weekends. Swap sometimes for night-time.            Sometimes I was working from 3 pm to 11 pm, and the next day you had to start at 7 am. Do till 3 pm. And come back again.” (P4).

The management style and organizational culture are important keys to perceiving role overload. It is identified by most of the participants that they perceived higher pressure in an organization that doesn’t provide any support and treats them as fittings. Participants reported that lack of respect between managers and staff and not being valued by seniors creates higher rates of unhappiness, poor performance, and a lower level of sense of belonging to the organization. As participants described it this way:

“My boss is also not helping. I find him difficult, constantly shouting and      “terrorizing”. He is arrogant and short with colleagues. (P3).

“And the management of the facility doesn’t care if you’re tired if you have stressed”            (P4).

One participant added that the Inability to focus on one task because of frequent interruption and pulled in different directions put much pressure.

“What I don’t like is the continued interruption at work. I would rather finish one, but         then someone asks again, and there is a phone call, and suddenly you have to do five tasks at the same time”. (P2).

Subtheme 2: Impacts on life-domains

Excessive time spent in the workplace and working outside regular hours to fulfill work expectations are directly related to lower levels of work-life balance. According to spillover theory of work-life balance (Edwards& Rothbard, 2000), family and personal life are negatively influenced because of the negative spread of emotions from work to the other areas of life and the depletion of time and emotional resources, resulting in unhappiness, meltdown and making individuals less available to nourish themselves and unable to engage in other roles like family.

As participants reported this concern as:

“I find that quite stressful because it affects my personal life because I have to work during the weekends, and that’s when most of my family and friends are off” (P1).

“I was working during the week, weekends. All like that. Weekends I had time for nothing, to have an ice cream, go out with my daughter, or with my family” (P4).

Subtheme 3: using alcohol as a maladaptive coping strategy

The ability of an individual to cope with a particular situation is dependent on his or her thinking and actions towards managing a particular situation. (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). There are two types of coping strategies, which include adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies. Adaptive methods help to regulate the stressful emotions and find more problem-solving solutions, while maladaptive methods do not. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) mentioned that many of maladaptive strategies are good at reducing the symptoms, but in the long-term, they result in increasing dysfunction where the symptoms are maintained and strengthened.

Drinking alcohol is a common maladaptive strategy used among ALL participants. Participants reported stress to be one of the reasons for drinking excessively, and they highlight the benefit that alcohol can bring to an individual’s mood.

“I think it’s tempting to drink more after a stressful day” (P3).

“going down the pub having a few beers after a stressful day at work, I always had to have more. I guess that made my happy”(P1).

Participants reported that alcohol consumption played a large part in their social lives and acted as a common social activity in their routine. As they spoke about enjoyment associated with drinking socially. It seems that not only alcohol elevate their mood but also the time they spend outside with friends and having social support would alleviate their stress and uplift their mood

 “I go out more pubbing with mates and go out more with friends because that’s our only entertainment really, isn’t it? Usually. The same group, every Friday without          fail” (P3).

My brother and I both enjoy a drink, both enjoy a social drink; I guess the social element of it” (P1).

It is shown that integrating alcohol as a social element acts as a gateway to heavy drinking and it was reported as

 “And it was the social involvement, and you just had a few beers and [uh uh]. once I had  a beer, I always had to have something else, I needed more and more and more.       [yeah] And then it switched onto wine and spirits [liquor}”I could never have one.” (P1)

There is a sense of dissonance among the participants due to knowing the risk of their drinking levels but would be unable to change their habit at the same time. According to Festinger’s (1957) theory, when individuals feel a sense of dissonance, they may choose to use rationalization as a defense mechanism to reduce dissonance stress. It is observed that participants rationalize their drinking in many forms. Because of their need to socialize with their friends and say something, they are in control, and they are not let themselves reach the severe forms of dependency, or they are drinking lower than their peers.

“It’s not at the state where I would run to the neighbors and steal from their cellar,  But I can think; this isn’t good! It is something – dependent, they call it. It is extremely rare that I’ll end up intoxicated, I thin”(P3).

“he supped 10 pints, and he was immune to it, you know. I mean, I wondered was he         rational in everything. Or not me [laughs], I had about 8, but you know this geezer      he’d done it all his life, and nowadays, it’s now the young ones that get 10, they’ll go      and put shop windows in, because they can’t take it.”(P2).

Discussion/Conclusion

The purpose of the current study was to examine and understand the effects of role overload and alcohol consumption and the combination of them on overall happiness. The study employed a mixed-method using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The results supported the hypothesis of this study as role overload and alcohol consumption combined had a significant negative effect on individuals’ happiness. Role overload was found to be a significant predictor of happiness. This is consistent with the results reported in several studies which found when job demands are exceeding the resources that the individual has, a sense of overburden and a heavy workload pressure will develop and subsequently lead to negative emotions like unhappiness ( Kahn et al. ,1964  & Barling & Frone, 2017).

With reference to the role theory (Katz & Kahn, 1978), and the findings of this study, it is clear that conflicts in an individual’s work-life result when the energy, time and behavioral demands conflict with the family and personal roles

According to the literature, it is also true to say that an unfavorable work environment also contributes to several employee outcomes, such as increasing the psychological strain, forcing the employee to quit, and increased occupational stress. (Francis & Barling, 2005).; Jones & Martens, 2009).

The results showed People who experience role overload are more likely to drink alcohol hazardously, and this is line with the “self-medication” theory (Swendsen et al.,2000). It states that that people may consume alcohol as a way to either cope with stress or improve their emotional states.

The findings of this study have several implications. The first one is that all organizations should formulate policies that ensure a quality work life for all employees. HR teams should design mentoring programs for managers to enhance their coaching competencies in providing the needed emotional and instrument support for employees.  The results from this study also had treatment programs aimed at teaching adaptive coping skills to the employees to help them cope with the disappointments of life without using alcohol, thus enhancing healthy self-expression and relation with other employees.

The results of the study should be considered in light of its limitations. First, the fact that the data were self-reported. Therefore, it could raise the concern of common methods of bias. Secondly, the sample number of individuals who participated in this study, so the results may have limited generalizability to people of various ethnic and racial backgrounds. Third, face-to-face interviews have some disadvantages. The interviewer can introduce biasness, and the respondents’ answers can be affected by the interpersonal variables of the interviewers.

Recommendations for future research include the following. Similar studies should rely less heavily on self-report such as observations and reports from peers or significant others (e.g., spouse-reported data). Future studies should be conducted on a much bigger and diverse sample size of various racial, ethnic backgrounds. Focus groups could be better utilized in the future qualitative phase. Focus groups provide a less artificial environments that one to one interviews, which means the data is likely to have higher ecological validity and they generate richer and deeper data from the interaction between participants (Willig, 2008).

In conclusion, both role overload and higher alcohol consumption increase the chances of one being unhappy. Low levels of happiness found to be significantly associated with greater role overload. So, Efforts should be geared to ensure that job demands are at an optimum level, and employees are provided with sufficient resources to meet these demands.

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Appendix

Spss tables

Calculation of z scores

.011/ .299  = .37

-.537/ .590 = -.91

-.113/ .299= -.38

-.627/ .590= -1.06

.017/.299= .06

.228/.590= .39