The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire

Question One

The Ottoman Empire demonstrates a drive to urbanization through a range of administrative reforms. The reforms targeted transforming municipalities into cities by leveraging on the export culture. The initiatives demonstrate alternative modernity because they were a compromise between the imperialist tendencies of the elite and the administrators who wished to maintain local structures. The challenge was how to achieve a leadership structure in the modern era that meets the requirements of religion. Creating a current municipality in Tripoli was thus a result of negotiation to obtain a balance between the old system and new systems. The change reveals the realization among Islamic scholars that faith and reason are complementary rather than in conflict.

Question 2

British domination if India demonstrates a high degree of capitalism. British farmers, in search of fortune, discovered indigo production in India. The farmers oppressed local inhabitants leading to the collapse of their domestic industries. Indigo farming, in the meantime, thrived and created a source of tribute to the British government and a lucrative business for local farmers. Colonialism was a tool to promote the ideals of modernism. The government enacted laws that oppressed local peasants but were applied liberally to white farmers. The quest for independence by India was, therefore, an expression of frustration with the capitalist excesses of the British.

Question 3:

The modernization of China has a mixed history, and different authors have explained it from varied perspectives. China has been a closed country from ancient times but gained current status by 2000. The modernization of China derives from the entry of Westerners in the 16th century. Hu Juchuang, A Chinese scholar, observed that China failed to develop into capitalism because of the Confucianists’ preoccupation with Chinese ethics and their dislike towards material gain. Capitalism was the main driver of modernization in the Western world but failed to penetrate China because of dominant anti-western ideology. However, China began to take an alternative approach to the economy after the thriving of the Asian tigers, Japan, and the Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs). China successfully achieved modernization through Agriculture, national defense, science and technology, and industry.

Question Four

The nation-building process in Japan in the 19th century was well organized and characterized by the growth of industry education, the military, and other institutions. China, on the hand lacked the infrastructure, political leadership and the military wherewithal match’s Japan’s development. Although China began the development process after 1911, the process thrived on corruption, violence and internal conflicts. Japan’s success as the imperial power in the Asia region derives from its strong military and economic power. The country gained superiority having suffered fewer defeats from Western imperialists. The state emerged as a strong force in the world despite maintaining its internal structures of leadership and military supremacy.

Question Five

Both charitable and commercial goals drove the European domination of Africa. Different regimes occupied the African territory at various times before European occupation. Zanzibar had formed part of the Portuguese empire until Britain acquired it as a client state in 11869. Zanzibar was an important trading hub and formed an entry point into the African hinterland. The state provided a trade zone for ivory, cloves, and slaves, among other commodities. Britain took an interest in the territory for the humanitarian need to abolish the slave trade and to exploit the business opportunities in the region.

Consequently, Britain sought an end to this trade, perpetrated by Indian traders residing in Zanzibar through various treaties

Question six

The first world war that began in 1914 came to an end in 1918 after the Treaty of Versailles. The war caused millions of casualties in Europe, but neither the Central Powers nor the Allies were approaching victory. In 2015, the allied forces faced defeat in their attempt to win the war by attacking Turkey, but they were repelled back by 1916. German and Britain exchanged heavy gunfire in 1916, but none of the countries obtained a decisive victory. America entered the fray of the war in 1918, leading to the triumph of Allied forces. The war challenged modernity and brought the U.S. at the center stage of modern innovation. Europe was socially destabilized leading to a diminished population of men compared to women. European countries began forming alliances that created the ground for World War II.

Question Seven

The Russian revolution took place in 1017 and resulted in the establishment of the Soviet Union. The revolution sought to resolve the economic and social inequalities in the country where local peasants hardly owned modern machinery. The society was under pressure from the Maoist regime that required taxes from the poor peasants. The general population was also alienated from the political leadership and the Tsar was out of touch with people’s problems. The revolution resulted in the formation of a socialist society under the Soviet Union. However, the system collapsed in 1923 as the world perceived the country as seeking a separatist governance approach. The people failed to achieve representative leadership, and the economic situation did not improve significantly.

Question 8

Nationalism was redefined significantly after World War 1 and changed the attitude of the people to the concept. Previously perceived on the premise of galvanizing peoples’ past and to emphasize their hegemony, nationalism was associated with a dark history of violence, ignorance and narrow-mindedness. Nationalism was a threat to national peace as leaders could use it to propagate hatred. Although nationalism sought to promote freedom and independence, it had morphed into a tool of atrocious acts that included evicting people out of their homes. After the WW1, Turkey initiated a journey of nationalism defined by separation from Allied forces. Turkey maintained its allegiance to Europe despite its definition among Arab countries. The country remained independent from the political definition that separated the Jews and Arabs.

Question 9

Double consciousness is a term used to describe the oppression of black people in a racist society. Blacks living on a post-slavery period suffered a variety of injustices that included colonialism, xenophobia as they sought to attain an authentic self. DU Bois popularized the term through his book “Strivings of Negro People” where he described the situation of the blacks based in America. Whereas the black American wishes to attain American identity, he continuously strived against the oppressive systems of the white society. Marcus Garvey viewed double consciousness as a result of several years of colonialism and oppression. According to Garvey, the harsh history of black people had divided the blacks and raised doubts about the legitimacy of their leadership. To achieve liberation, Garvey proposed that black people should engage in self-knowledge through awareness of their history.

Question 10

Before the Russian revolution, the country faced several social, econom and cultural problems. The Tsarist regime had neglected the peasants who formed most farmers in the country but continued imposing levies from society. Stalin promised to increase industrialization to catch up with the development observed in Western states. Stalin introduced communism in Russia that comprised collectivism in agriculture and the subordination of the interests of foreign governments. However, the Stalinist regime failed to solve the problem of alienation of the poor from governance and instead promoted official violence to rid the society of the bourgeoisie. Besides, Stalinism enhanced class conflict that resulted in widespread destruction.

Question 11

After World War II, countries rekindled their nationalism based on the heroism of the soldiers that fought in the war. Countries celebrated the death of soldiers with pageantry across different regions, and they received accolades as true national heroes. Dying for one’s nation has been regarded as the highest honor for the country. Britain, for instance, has obtained pride in not losing any major war in history. Patriotism is the unity of people in a country that promoted positive virtues, unlike its destructive connotations after the WWI. Countries sought to protect their sovereignty as a demonstration of their patriotic duty. Nationalism derived from such emblems as flags and national anthems that glorified freedom fighters and liberation crusaders.

SECTION TWO

Question 1

The shape and dimension of the state changed significantly in the 19th century and was defined by growing complexity and professionalization. Several social forces introduced into countries destabilized the hierarchies that dominated states before the 19th century. The land was more connected to building worldwide homogeneity as a departure from fidelity to local enclaves. The new identity of the rule defines how countries have cooperated to construct formidable unions for the welfare of their citizens. Bayley opines that the state was the most unifying force that worked on capitalism. He observes that the state used the instruments of powerful economic convergences that were an offshoot of industrialization.

Question 2

Liberalism is a system of governance that exemplifies liberty and promotion of a comfortable life in affluent Western states. Some scholars view Liberalism as a system that supports welfare by enhancing the global distribution of wealth (Bell, 2014). However, Liberalism’s weaknesses emanate from its tendency to promote unrestrained capitalism that leads to a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Socialism, on the other hand, is the government of people based on the principle of redistribution of wealth. The system thrives on obtaining from each according to their ability and distributing to each according to their needs. It derives from the scientific ideals of governance where governance institutions align with scientific research rather than ideology (Chilvers and Macnaghten, 2011). This system differs significantly from liberal governments because they advocate for increased state control of the means of production and distribution

Question 3

Bayly refers to the empires of religion as emanating from the 19th century dominated by a resurgence of spirituality. Bayly considers the internal strengthening of world as more significant than the growth of nationalism and liberation that was experienced at the same period. He observed that some faith establishments never existed in the formalized system of religion today. Hinduism for instance only took shape as a religious institution during this period. Religion challenges modernity as it retreats from its traditional private role and attains a public identity distinguishing between the secular and sacred. According to Bayly, religions are defined by their indigenous cultural resources before the 19th century but appreciate that they have gained new identities.

Question 4

There was a shift in the depiction of art between 1760 and 1850 from dynasties to the heroics of nationhood. Artists across the world captured the new forms of government during this period. The creativity emanated from the conquests of the British across the globe to triumphs of the French. In America, art reflected the relationship between the whites, Amerindians, and the black community. World literature also experienced a transformation during this period. Although some regions like India had well-developed styles of writing, much of the literature in the world was in oral versions. The era of the expansion of imperialism in the world saw the destruction of previously-stored literature, causing countries to adopt creativity in preserving their literature.

Question 5

Bayly talks about the reconstruction of social hierarchies in the new national dispensation consistent with new identities. The old order derivewas characterized by monarchies, enlightened despots, and titular chief that derived their authority from councils of tribal elders. The former system oligarchic values that glorified hierarchies. In the new dispensation, some semblance of the old order was preserved but served their need for change. Women, in the industrial age, were subjugated to a lower status compared to men. The colonial powers failed to bring about change and depended on old leadership structures for administration. The new era ushered in a continuity rather that a revolution of hierarchies.

Question 6

By great acceleration, Bayly refers to the increase in the rate of political and economic changes that took place two decades before the breakout of the First World War. Politically, two centers of power pitting Germany and Britain began to emerge. German, through Naval power sought bto challenge British domination in the Ottoman empire. On the economic front, America and Germany has embarked on steel production and achieved output levels that exceeded Britain. In Asia, Japan emerged as a portent force and expanded its colonial influence from Taiwan to Korea and established nan administration modelled on the British empire. Bayly defines motors of change not only as revolutions in transportation but also the leaders that influenced revolutions across the world. Leaders of centralized and imperial states that destabilized traditional structures played a significant role in political and social transformation across the world.

Question 7

The drivers of change were integrated into interdependence in the 20th century. The Western powers had thrived on economic exploitation but faced challenges from emerging movements. The divide between the “North” and “South” persisted but the political and ideological hegemony of the West was weakened by disease and war. The dominance also created intellectuals among the colonized who countered the western philosophies of dominance. As a result, hybrid forms of leadership fronted by such scholars like Gandhi and Jamal al-din al-Afghani. Conflicts between European powers also created opportunities for the emergence of military powers in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Across many regions, nationalism obtained a global perspective and emerging nations promoted alternative ideological perspectives to the world.

Question 8

The World War I raised concerns about the ability of the international community to minimize conflict. The war led to the devastation of Europe and gave rise to associations between countries. The divisions based on ideologies divided countries and sowed the seeds for a new conflict. Authoritarian regimes in Russia and middle east held extreme ideology and propagated hate. In Germany, the devastation led to the emergence of Hitler who propagated hatred against the Jews. Bayly differentiates between the Western powers distinguished by capitalism and communists that subscribed to the ideologies of Lenin. These forces fanned world conflict that led to the breakout of the WWII.

Question 9

Tanizaki described modernization in Japan with reference the shadows of rituals, tradition and the exploration of the irrational. Despite the elements of modernity in Japan, similar to Western trends, the country maintained its traditional structures. Tanizaki glorified the aesthetics of Japanese culture against Western influences that were preoccupied with progress. In his argument, Tanizaki promoted a counterculture to European culture in japan. Tanizaki promoted the expression of Japanese culture and beauty in the global world that thrived on the suppression of these ideals. The implications of this ideology were the expansion of Japan into civilization while maintaining aspects of their culture and traditions.

Question 10

Bayly’s analysis of the second world war focuses on the forgotten armies of the East. Historical analysis has concentrated on the vagaries occasioned by the war on western countries and given little thought about how Asian countries suffered. The British colonies in Asia, including India and Japan, actively participated in the war by providing troops. Before the war, japan had gained renown in the Asian region due to its economic prowess. Japan registered a significant victory in its war with Russia and became the first Asian country to defeat a European country. The author documents that the Japanese reigned over a large part of Asia during the war but treated the races differently; they were hostile towards Indians and Chinese but tolerant to Burmese and Malays. Bayly sees racism as a significant characteristic of the consequences of the war among the Asian countries

SECTION 3: Primary Source

Image 1

The image illustrates Ancient Egypt along the Nile River. The prosperity of Egypt emanated from its proximity to the river Nile and fertile lands that promoted agricultural production. The country was densely populated and enjoyed a vibrant culture with strong leadership. Some historians connect the construction of pyramids to slaves in Egypt, but the authenticity of the architects remain unknown. The pyramids have precise mathematical characteristics, and are some scholars believe that they are the work of professional architects. Art in Egypt was a preserve of a class of elite people. The piece of art is an exemplary representation of old Egyptian creativity

Image 2

Chinese Civilization

The image examines Chinese revolution and demonstrated by the building of the wall of China. The wall was initially constructed to repel invaders from accessing China. The wall however became a symbol of Chinese power. It remains the psychological sign of the protection China experiences from Western forces. Today China has managed to enter modernity regardless of failing to adopt capitalism and the liberalist ideology of the West. China has transformed from a closed economy to an economic power with influence across the world. China maintains a semblance of traditional power characterized by controlled rights of the people but has managed to influence the world economically defying Western ideals of modernity.

Image 3

The image depicts ancient India civilization that took place in the Indus Valley. The Indus Valley was the center of the largest urban civilizations that included Egypt, Mesopotamia and China. Archeological findings show that the people created a variety of household and warfare items and dealt in gold and jewelry. The revolution took place among the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harrapa. The art of growing wheat and barley can be attributed to this civilization as well as the construction of houses made of baked bricks and the use of cotton garments. The civilization was later destroyed by natural disaster elements of floods and earthquakes.

Image 4

The image shows the early innovations in the locomotive engine. Although the invention dates to 200 BC. During the reign of Alexander, it was popularized in the 18th century Britain where the steam engine significantly altered the way people’s social and economic lives. The locomotive was modified by John Jervis for American terrains to enable navigation through tighter curves. Through the locomotive, the British expanded their empires across the Americas and through their colonies in other locations including Asia and Africa. The locomotive promoted industrialization and revolutionized trade across the world. The locomotive innovation has advanced to modern trains that are a popular means of transport in the world today.

SECTION 4

Question 1

The text reveals the military state of countries after the World War II. The war led to a change in culture and definition of nationhood. Before the war, nations were characterized by traditional dynasties distinguished from the outside world. The war created a desire for nationalism that was defined by modern beau acracies. The state had transformed into a nation and achieved international appeal. The ravages of war had caused countries to seek cooperation rather than exclusion from other nations. In the new dispensation of the definition of the state, countries could deploy more manpower and weapons for war. The protection of national sovereignty was supreme to national identity.

Question 2

Byly makes an argument about the affront of Liberalism on traditional forms of government. Different countries held to their traditional forms of governments that valued collectivism that sought to control their populations. Liberalism, an ideal of the Western countries was founded on capitalist ideas. It advocated for minimal government involvement in the lives of the people and encouraged personal liberties. Liberalists opposed the oppressive forms of governments embodies in hierarchies caused by attempts of the leaders to control labor and land. However, Liberalism failed to solve class divisions in society and developed new frontiers for hierarchy. On the global front, discrimination was based on races and cultures, levels of enlightenment and the freedoms that citizens enjoyed from their countries

Question 3

The text refers to the changes occasioned by industrialization in the 19th century. The intellectuals during this time opined that industrialization and new urbanization had distinguished the era from any other in history. Industrialization was taking place in in the era of liberal ideal that emphasized on rational thought rather than religion. In this environment, religion was losing its grip on society. Increased intellectual activity during this period was occasioned in the growth of science and technology. The society was changing drastically through industrialization and the proliferation of Liberalism across the world. The effect of this era has significantly transformed world politics, economy and social life.

Question 4

The colonial regime led to the interruption of the economic and social lives of the people. the concept of understanding the “people” changed from a collection of ethnicities to nation-building. Locals now participated towards building economies of through their labor. Previously living in secluded communities, herdsmen were recruited into the market economy as indentured laborers. However, industrialization occasioned a new form of harmony and created conveniences that caused families to stay together. The manufacture of sugar and coffee for instance enabled families to make purchases and enabled them to share meals together thus building higher social satisfaction. Industrialization brought about a dynamic social culture and redefined the concept of “people”.

References

Bayly, C. A. (2004). The birth of the modern world, 1780-1914: global connections and comparisons (p. 199). Oxford: Blackwell.