Human Organ Trafficking

Abstract

The world over the last decades has been marred with many controversies, that in the last few decades, a person can commit a crime and get safety through fleeing to another country. This act of committing such serious crimes is the transnational crime. The most ridiculous form of it is the human organ trafficking. For many developed and third world countries, strong networks of transnational crimes are developed and these happen to threaten the state itself. The crime achieved through by penetrating various institutions of a state through corruption and bribery as well as subverting them from within. Governments may be regarded as capture states when it lacks a position to counter such penetrations. This paper examines the transnational crimes that is organized in various countries and are executed in a different one. In this research paper, we focus specifically on the United States.

Human organ trafficking is examined pointing to substantial upsurges in criminal activity and persistent influences on non-governmental institutions. The level of a country’s security and to some extent, corruption in the police judiciary as well as other institutions of a state has aided in criminal linkages’ permeation of political bodies.  The outcomes of this research do not victimize the United States in any way as a criminalized state but its details are under violence.  To stop these criminal connections from destabilizing the state, resolute intercessions are required. At the conclusion of this paper, recommendations are made and thereby measures to be taken at various levels such as national, regional and international.

List of acronyms and abbreviations

UN – United Nations

HOT – Human Organ Trafficking

EU – European Union

WHO – World Health Organization

1.0 OBJECTIVES

Human organ trafficking has remained a subject of unconfirmed reports and rumour for quite a very long time. With the continuous growth of organs demands in the last fifteen years, a vast body of fieldwork and other research by Medias and medical anthropologists since 1980s have recognized instances of such trafficking. That research shaded light on this phenomenon. In a section, through facet representation of sufferers, receivers and those betrothed in the human organ trafficking connections. Patients from rich states, deteriorating on waiting lists, are travelling abroad to acquire

the desired organ (Howard 1990). The donors are suffering from severe deficiency and are cheated by the trafficking connection to donate their organs in exchange for a mild share of money that the receiver paid to the traffickers.

Global research is undertaken in every continent where both third world and developed states are involved. Five to ten percent of the kidney transplants undertaken every year are due to recipients travelling abroad to purchase at required organ as estimated by WHO. The US society is active, vibrant and media free, and is admired as one of the developed counties. However much the US is characterized by good things, the darker part of it is that there exists transnational crimes which entail human organ trafficking. This has penetrated and expanded business structures and government to an extent that the institutions of the state are no longer in a position to counter it effectively.

Transnational crime refers to a criminal act, which is coordinated across national borders. This crime has not been of much concern to the international communities

  2.0 BACKGROUND

In every ten minutes, there is an additional one person to the waiting list of organ transplant in a nation. On average, this is approximately 8000 people every year, which translates to twenty-two people each day. This comes to being because of late donation of the required organs.

The recipients have two alternatives of acquiring these organs; the first one is through deceased persons and the other one is from living donors. Healthy individuals who are willing to donate their liver or kidney to an ill person can do so and continue living a healthy life (George 199). If part of the liver is donated, then the remaining part will grow back and will function just quite well.

Human organ trafficking is an illegal trade and yet it is thriving among the continents. This is because the trade generates huge amounts of profits. The poor countries are the most vulnerable of falling victims to this trade. The incredible imbalance between the supply and demand drives this particular black market. For the people who want to avoid the waiting list, they have made these poor countries their popular destinations of getting such organs.

   3.0 RESEARCH FOCUS

This research focusses on human organ trafficking as an aspect of the transnational crime. It seeks to investigate the occurrence of the trade, its implementation, effects, the outcomes and the viable recommendations to do away with this illegal trade.

  3.1   RESEARCH PROBLEM

Human organ trafficking (HOT) is an illegal trade that is prohibited worldwide. However, various reports have indicated that it is thriving across the globe and as a result, majority of the countries in and outside the European Union (EU) have come up with viable legislation against HOT. However, the knowledge concerning the occurrence of HOT and non-legislative answers to the act are practically inaccessible and fictional to judicial law implementation establishments among the European Unions (EU) members (Yezigloz 1998).

This knowledge deficiency hampers the creation of an organised and an operative deed to this distasteful system of HOT, which bring psychological and physical tribulations to defenceless persons.

3.2    RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Human organ trafficking is an illegal trade that is being carried out and executed in various countries regardless of the whether or not it is either a developed or a developing nation. The questions that the paper intends to tackle include; how is this activity executed? How can it be countered? What are the existing information on the nature and aspects of human organ trafficking?

3.3    RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This project has four objectives whose aim is to address the knowledge gaps as well as improving the non-legislative responses to HOT (Chris 2001). These objectives include:

   To increase knowledge about HOT.

   To raise awareness amid target groups.

   To consult expert authorities to seek information on HOT.

   To recommend ways of improving the non-legislative response.

4.0   RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

During the research, we employed searches on the respective chapters that entail thematic literature on human organ trafficking (Rachel 1990). The data were searched on the databases which contain information about human organ trafficking; in this manner Web of Science, Escohost database, Scopus, Library of Catalog dialogue, PubMed and OAlster were used primarily, the following outcomes were obtained from each database:

Database    Date searched    Number of hits

OAlster    12th March 2018    66

PubMed    12th March 2018    343

Library of Catalog dialogue 15th March 2018    14

Scopus    15th March 2018    338

Escohost database    21st March 2018    790

Web of Science    21st March 2018    260

The search based on particular keywords. These words include; human organ trafficking, a victim, recipient, organ trade, waiting list and kidney transplant. The eligibility criteria was used to access records. However, some other irrelevant chapters to this study were omitted (Thomas 1993). Such chapters include blood cells and bone marrow among others.

 5.0 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

5.1    INTRODUCTION

The hot is a project response from the research done for studies against trafficking human being in order to remove their organs. The research was prioritized by the studies goal (Diego 1993). The major scope of this research is human organ trafficking. Subsequently, this crime is the sole focus of this report and therefore we do not focus on the definition of other terms. Below is a list of definition of terms used in this report.

Sufferer of a trafficked person

This refers to any innocent individual who has been subjected to trafficking.

Recipient

This is the person receiving the organ transplant.

Donor

Any person who donates an organ. It could be either a death or a living person.

Organ

An organ is a differentiated section of a human body, which is a combination of various tissues to maintain its structure and its capacity to function well.

5.2    GENERAL ETHICAL ARGUMENTS ABOUT HOT

These arguments generally include the following categories:

1. HOT violates ethical principles of justice, respect for human dignity, equity and justice, therefore, it is wrong.
2. HOT dehumanizes and objectifies the persons being trafficked and reduces them as a source of organs.

iii.    HOT is a form of exploitation of the socially disadvantaged individuals.

1. HOT commoditizes the organ transplant as well as procurement.
2. The autonomy of the trafficked person is violated by HOT, by deceiving the vulnerable persons into donating their organs in exchange for money, which is not paid in the end.
3. The consequences of HOT are harmful to the medical profession, trafficked person and the receiver.

5.3    HOT AS A VIOLATION OF BIOMEDICAL ETHICS

1. Hot undermines the trust of the public in organ transplant.
2. HOT destroys the integrity of the medical profession.

III.    HOT disrupts the bioethical code of non-maleficence.

1. Hot rejects the bioethical code of medical autonomy.

5.4    ETHICAL RESPONSES TO HOT

1. Strengthening the enforcement actions and legal regulations.
2. Reducing Hot by reducing the scarcity of organs.

iii.    Making the care and the protection of trafficked persons a priority.

1. Building national self-sufficiency through increasing donations from deceased persons in the field of organ transplant.

5.5     QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

An overview of the state literature concerning the causes of HOT is presented in this section. A general description is given for most reasons beneath HOT. Three major causes are highlighted below:

• Local Causes
• Global procedures and asymmetries
• Organ scarcity

5.6 LOCAL CAUSES

To get a clear understanding of human organ trafficking, we need to put into consideration the local conditions as well as contexts. In the literature of HOT, three conditions are frequently mentioned as major causes of HOT and therefore these conditions are discussed herein (Layman 1997). One of them is corruption. Corruption has escalated to varied levels in various states; people tend to participate in HOT to get certain favours. This act results in the coercion of the vulnerable persons to give their organs or part of their organs in exchange for money. However, the money promised is not paid as agreed. Another condition is lack of sound laws and regulations to govern and mitigate against the organ trade particularly in human organ transplant. These illegal acts are carried out in several countries and there are no measures taken against involved individuals.  We collected and analysed data from various sources to quantify the problem.

5.7 GLOBAL PROCEDURES AND IRREGULARITIES

Other causes of hot are concerned with global procedures and irregularities. The scope of this cause may be so complex (Tamara 2003). Nevertheless, global irregularities and procedures are viewed in the two perspectives listed below:

• Criminological perspective
• Cultural analytical perspective

5.8 ORGAN SCARCITY

To a larger extend, the scarcity of organs has over the last decades become the common cause of human organ trafficking. It has been found the number of the people on the waiting list waiting for the organ transplant increases by one in every ten minutes. This figure averages to twenty-two persons per day. This calls for more organs for transplant (Loretta 2003). However, there is a deficiency of the same; as a result, traffickers seize this as an opportunity to earn whooping amounts of profits. They tend to use various coercion ways to acquire the organs needed by the patients.

5.9    DATA COLLECTION

The process of data collection was done through documents and records. Existing data in the databases were examined to come up with facts (Caroline 2000).  The method was cheap, easy, not time-consuming, and therefore selected for use. However, there is no calculation, the data was analysed by the use of the computational method. It is important to understand the problem by looking at the results were obtained after data analysis.

    6.0 DATA ANALYSIS

This chapter discusses the models on the research questions presented above. To emphasize, this learning theorises that countries will see a sharper decline in their poor human organ trafficking arrest rate subsequent the passageway of the anti-trafficking rule that enhances defences for youth. In totalling to giving these models, this section will also deliberate the way possible data anxieties were addressed and how payments were directed on the consequences gained. To initiate, an instantaneous of expressive figures for the variables are presented in the results table. LITERATURE REVIEW

The main role of ethics is to define if a given practice is either wrong or right by use of the logical methods, philosophical analysis and reasonable argument. The guidelines for differentiating what is ethically wrong from a right are well discussed in the theories of ethics. These theories give complete perspectives, which can make a situation bad or good, pure or impure from a materialistic point of judgment (Naylor 2002). The theories include duty-based theory, virtue and consequentialism ethics, enhanced by feminist values and rights-based standards in the 20th century. Biomedical principles is a sub-field of ethics, using ethical methods to assess the moral permissibility of different medicinal practices. we recognised the following gatherings to be main participants in the defence of humans being trafficked for the role of organ elimination for such trading: countries, law-enforcement organisations and law lords, non-governmental organizations employed in the fields of rights of humans and anti-trafficking, remove centres and specialists, other health experts tangled in removal remedy, error bodies, as well economic institutions (Paoli 2003). Though not all of the known participants are eligible to bid direct support to sufferers or possible victims, all of them can play a part in the fight against HOT and, consequently, they need to be learnt and assimilated into a complete scheme of events focused at eradicating HOT. For instance, monetary organisations do not interrelate one on one with HOT fatalities because they are paid in cash. Nevertheless, banks might show a part of the course of defence, avoidance, and trial of HOT by imposing the endorsements of the fiscal deed job force, which cliques the worldwide anti-money washing stock. The approach to money laundering could help to recognise monetary dealings amid persons engaged in HOT.

   7.0 DISCUSSION

7.1 RESULTS

The finding of the research identified various aspects of the traffickers, recipients, law-enforcement and other involved agencies as discussed below.

7.2    RECIPIENTS

In communication with the research questions presented in the first chapter of this paper, this piece grants a short-lived impression of the nature of literature concerning organ receivers. Several data records were gathered and analysed to define the contextual and condition of victims, and their mutual appearances. The way recipients get organs was also assessed throughout the human organ trafficking (Simion 1999).

The Literature of HOT depicts that most victims move for transplantation and that some pay for their organ transplants, thus far there is minimal data on if these operations concern HOT. Accordingly, the following gaps are identified.

• Information about the prevalence, nature as well as the extent of victims’ association in hot continues to be limited. For example, it is not clear if these victims can be perceived as perpetrators, victims or both. Numerous investigations do not symbolize the midpoints or procedures that patients apply to recover organs.
• Education about victims generally does not discuss the suppliers of the organs required. With some exclusions, it is concealed whether these organs were trafficked, whether receivers identified their suppliers and if they have reached their suppliers before.
• there is the absence of information to verify whether there is a connection amid hot on the one hand and flying for operations on the other.

Trafficking in human beings for the purpose of organ removal

• Studies about victims coming back from transplants abroad does not consider the transplant system where the transplant was carried out or data concerning the medical practitioners that did the transplant.
• The situation of pre-transplant of patients differs. For this case, it is almost impossible to pinpoint the cause why some patients move abroad for transplantations, while others do not.

7.3   ORGAN TRAFFICKERS

Organ traffickers refer to the persons that are involved in the organ trade. As defined earlier, this section describes a brief summary of this class of people. The current state and the common characteristics are further discussed in this chapter.

The illegality of the transplant schemes consists in the commercialism of organ transplant. There are numerous processes of human organ transplant.

Gaps in the literature

The literature on persons who supply their organs as part of illegal transplant schemes is inconclusive and as such, we identified the following gaps:

• There is more information about situation and experiences of organ suppliers from some organ-exporting countries. We know more about India, China, Philippines, Pakistan, Egypt, Colombia, Bangladesh and Moldova than about Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Russia, Iraq, Jordan, Romania, Kosovo, Turkey, Israel, Brazil, Peru and Bolivia. However, as Yea and Cohen point out, further research must be aimed at attending to variations within organ exporting countries.
• Since most of the studies that have been conducted on organ suppliers within illicit or illegal transplant schemes is based on interviews with suppliers, emphasis is on their situation and experiences, rather than on how and what practical arrangements are carried out, what events take place and who the supplier meets during the days or weeks around the operation.
• As a consequence of point 2, we know little about the depth and nature of the involvement and contact between different actors. To what extent do organ suppliers and recipients meet? If they do, to what extent do they remain in contact? What is the nature of this contact? Are all actors aware of the position of vulnerability of the organ supplier? If not, who are and who are not the main abusers of this vulnerability? These are questions that further research will need to address.

Brokers

This chapter presents a brief overview of the state of the literature regarding the involvement of brokers in human trafficking for the purpose of organ removal (Jihad 2003). Adopting the methods presented, we selected and analysed 56 articles to describe the background of brokers, as well as their common characteristics. Next, we assessed their modus operandi and discussed whether they organize commercial transplants through HOT. The final paragraph identifies the gaps in the literature.

Background and common characteristics

The existence of brokers, brokering or brokerage has widely been reported in relation to human organ trade as a prohibited or unethical act. Brokers are often referred to as those who arrange or facilitate commercial transplants and receive the payments. They are also called middlemen, third parties, corridors agent or connectors. Mendoza distinguishes brokers from middle agents though, because of the former’s overt profit motives and organ price control. There exists no uniform or internationally identified definition of the term broker. Yea, who distinguishes brokers from recruiters, defines a broker as an intermediary between a kidney buyer and seller, who connects the two using his/her knowledge of medical personnel and facilities that engage in illegal kidney transplantations. The brokers’ key asset in this market is his/her knowledge of other stakeholders in the market to whom the seller does not have direct access. Mendoza adopts a broader approach, defining brokers as individuals, agencies or groups who establish the network. According to Scheper-Hughes, brokers define themselves as business executives and international transplant coordinators.

Brokers may include doctors, hospitals and matching agencies’ laboratories. They operate individually or work with agencies and organized groups such as criminal syndicates. Brokers act as invaluable connectors between recipients and suppliers and are therefore the key players in the organ trade network. These networks are often multi-layered and involve some staff of hospital travel agencies as well as government officials. Brokers are also the market drivers or price setters of the organ trade

Brokers are claimed to financially benefit the most from these transactions. Testimonies against them are very rare since recipients, suppliers do not file complaints against them, and as a result, they escape law enforcement. Moreover, from a criminal justice perspective, if a supplier approaches a broker, it is very difficult to prosecute him, even if there has been resulting exploitation. However, prosecutions of brokers have taken place in Turkey, Israel, India, South Africa, the United States, Kosovo and Brazil.

Modus operandi

In contrast to the large degree to which brokerage is mentioned in the literature, only a few studies address the modus operandi of brokers. These studies have been performed in Colombia, the Philippines, India, Bangladesh, Moldova and Israel. Besides, Scheper-Hughes and Finkel both write about brokers from Israel and Brazil who arranged transplant package tours in South Africa for recipients from the United States and Israel.

Organ brokers encounter little difficulty in finding impoverished individuals who are willing to exchange their organs for cash. Brokers are known to seek suppliers directly or employ scouts who go into the field and may, in turn, pay local residents a commission per selected supplier or may pay them a small fee to spread the word and set up internet advertisements (Vadim 2002). Suppliers also approach brokers themselves, as they received the brokers contact details from family, friends or through the internet or newspaper advertisements. After the transplantation, several suppliers thus become brokers themselves and receive financial bonuses for facilitating the recruitment of new potential suppliers.

As recipients and suppliers often originate from two different countries and travel halfway around the world for transplantation, brokers not only help recipients to locate transplant centres and accommodations in hospital rooms and hotels but also do the arrangement for transport, medical examination, documents and accommodation for suppliers. Moniruzzaman writes that Bangladeshi suppliers are housed in poor accommodations. These rooms contain as many as ten others in an apartment, permanently rented by a broker. Scheper-Hughes and Finkel both write about poor individuals from Egypt, Jordan and Iraq who are housed in a special ward of a hospital in Iraq since there is never a shortage of sellers. They arrive at the hospitals and are tested, and then they live at the hospitals unit until a buyer with a good match appears. Moazam reports that Pakistani suppliers live in a hospital room for many days prior to surgery. Most of them are housed together for the purpose of organ removal.

All costs related to medical tests, the broker pays travel documents and accommodation and these debts are eventually deducted from the supplier’s fee.

Involvement in HOT

Literature reveals that the presence of a broker is likely to enhance the exploitation of suppliers, and thus this increases the likelihood of HOT. Brokers exploit the vulnerable position of suppliers’ poverty and illiteracy by means of deception, force or other forms of coercion, abduction, or fraud (Frederico 2001). First of all, brokers do not remunerate organ suppliers fairly or do not actually pay them the agreed amount. They often give them less than the promised amount, if anything at all comes by. The illegality of the industry and suppliers often-voluntary participate in it, thus making it difficult to pursue any claims for any amount of money not received. Deception also occurs in terms of health support: many suppliers do not receive the promised post-operative and long-term care; meaning health checks and other follow up services are not available or the quality of the check-ups is poor. Potential suppliers are also misled about the procedure of organ donation, need for follow-up care, its risks and long-term consequences as well as the psychological and lifestyle impact of the donation. As a Brazilian supplier put it: My broker said I would be healthier with just one kidney. Some potential suppliers are recruited by means of false promises of employment to work abroad. Brokers are known to provide misleading and inadequate information to suppliers by telling them the story of the sleeping kidney and presenting the donation as a win-win situation without any risks or harms involved. Brokers further convince prospective suppliers to sell by portraying the kidney donation as a noble act that saves lives and will be performed by world-renowned specialists, or they guilt-trip them by emphasizing the desperation of the dying recipient. Brokers tell suppliers that their choice not to donate diminishes after costs are incurred from medical examinations and expectations on the part of the buyer are raised (Savona 1995). Some authors report that the brokers seize suppliers’ passports after they crossed the border, to ensure that they cannot return home before their kidney has been removed for the purpose of the transplant. Some of the suppliers who changed their minds about the sale are held captive, threatened and/or physically abused. Sodrul, a 22-year-old college student, decided not to donate his kidney and asked the broker for his passport so he could return to Bangladesh. The broker and two hired local mustangs thugs beat up Sodrul, assaulted him and threatened him into the operation. Scheper-Hughes reports that kidney suppliers from Moldova spoke of being kidnapped and assaulted by their Russian and Turkish brokers. Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal. Some brokers instruct suppliers and recipients quite well on how to deceive donation authorization or ethical committees (Roy 2002). For instance, they familiarize suppliers and recipients with the questions that they should expect to be asked, and instruct suppliers to deny that they received any kind of payment for the organ. In fact, some of the suppliers are asked to report false details of their place of residence so that they may escape police inquiries. Brokers are known to arrange a proxy donor to make statements on their behalf. They forge legal documents that indicate that the person is donating an organ to a relative and advise the supplier not to disclose his true identity, so that the healthcare personnel may not reject the case. I was asked to pose for a photograph with the recipient and act as his wife for a while. I was told that this arrangement would help me in escaping the rules and regulations and will also expedite payments to me, I obeyed. Moniruzzaman reports that a Hindu kidney supplier underwent circumcision against his religious faith, in order to pass as a relative of his Muslim recipient, who told him: We would not be able to complete the deal as Indian doctors could reveal our fake identities, especially during the operation while we would be lying naked. Not all suppliers are exploited since as mentioned before, many suppliers approached brokers themselves and some have said to put pressure on the broker to arrange for the organ sale. Many are known to be disappointed, frustrated or angry if they fail to pass the required medical tests and are therefore deemed ineligible for providing an organ. However, suppliers who voluntarily sell their kidneys may nonetheless face severe vulnerabilities and exploitation. The empirical evidence discussed above suggests that threat of force is used to induce initial compliance and coercive techniques like emphasizing the desperation of the dying recipient or withholding of passports that are used to ensure that individuals do not back off. Besides, existing studies suggest frequent problems with the accuracy of the information provided to the poorly educated and illiterate suppliers: they are falsely assured with the myth of the sleeping kidney and misled into thinking that they would be paid substantially more than they actually receive. We illustrate that the presence of brokers increases the likelihood of HOT. However, the literature reveals that not in every case all elements of the HOT definition are present. For this reason, Yea argues that trafficking is generally assumed, rather than rigorously established (Paul 1974). However, in order to be able to hold brokers liable under the provision of human trafficking, the only thing that matters is that one of the actions was committed with one of the means, with the purpose of exploitation of an individual for organ removal. Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Organ Removal

Gaps in the literature

The literature on brokers is however incomplete. Therefore, we consequently identify the following gaps:

• Many actors and actions are placed under the term broker or brokerage. It is unclear what constitutes a broker or what the difference lies between a broker and other actors in the network.
• The process of transportation and accommodation is very vague. How are the recipients and suppliers transported? Where are they accommodated? By whom exactly? Through which agencies?
• It remains unclear how exactly illegally operating commercial organ markets are linked to human trafficking, especially in comparison with other forms of human trafficking.

7.4    RESEARCH PROTOCOL

Human organ trafficking shall mean the staffing, moving, handover, hiding or unloading of people, using methods such as the threating or use of potency or otherwise any other systems of intimidation (Glern 2002). Such methods are kidnapping, of fraud, of sham, of the exploitation of authority or of a situation of susceptibility or of the benevolent or getting of costs or welfares to attain the accord of an individual who has control compare to another one, for the sake of misuse. Misuse shall entail, at a slightest, the mistreatment to attain favours through prostitution as well as another form of sexual harassment, forced toil or amenities, bondage or does parallel to captivity, enslavement or the organ removal processes;

The consent of a victim of trafficking in human organs to the proposed misuse agreed onward in the above. This item shall be inappropriate where any of the agreed forms set forth have been used.

A work and time schedule were formulated during the research to ensure that the exercise was accomplished successfully (Solmid 2004). In the schedule, the research was cracked down into phases in which specific task is done. Each phase took approximately 14 hours.

The phase of data search. In this phase, data was searched from the various databases.

The phase of data analysis. The data collected and recorded in the first phase was analysed to come up with the conclusions and responses for the problem under study.

8. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

8.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations for national level

    A specialized serious crime unit should be established. A team should be appointed and delegated a task to report and consider the need to establish a specialized unit mandated to investigate and make for prosecution cases relating human organ trafficking.

    Information dissemination, analysis and research on transnational crimes should be enhanced.

    A primary overhaul of company registration access systems should be carried out to enhance public access accuracy and transparency.

Recommendations at the regional level

    Enhance police cooperation significantly in the UN.  This is meant to help law-enforcement agencies to carry out their duties well.

Recommendations at International level

Develop excellent initiatives to bring together various counties to help one another alleviate against effects of transnational crimes. This program has three strategic priorities in the nation’s plan. These include:

• Countering human organ trafficking (HOT)
• Promoting justice and integrity as well as fighting corruption.
• Improving human development and the health.

8.2    CONCLUSION

Every state has a responsibility to counter various aspects of transnational crimes particularly the human organ trafficking. I, therefore, call upon the nations to adopt fundamental, far-reaching and institutional changes. During the research, the government institutions such as prosecution services, the judiciary and the police are directly affected. For the effective address of transnational crime, then interventions, which result in early winning and give tangible and quick results, are required. The interventions should further add to reinstating public lawfulness and self-assurance in government institutions whereas these institutions are being altered. In the World Development Report 2011, these aspects are adequately addressed; its recommendations are focussed on the above objectives.

Although human organ trafficking undermines the state’s foundations gradually, all the countries have the energy required, the creativity and the people to inverse this progression of self-destruction. If such crimes were confronted without rejecting their degree, extensive international maintenance for operational countermeasures would be available.

Recommendations

Recommendations for national level

    A specialized serious crime unit should be established.

    Information dissemination, analysis and research on transnational crimes should be enhanced.

    A primary overhaul of company registration access the systems should be carried out to enhance public access accuracy and transparency.

Recommendations at the regional level

    Enhance police cooperation significantly in the UN.

Recommendations at International level

Develop excellent initiatives to bring to gether various counties to help one another.

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