Cancer and the Nursing process

Introduction

Cancer is a group of diseases affecting various parts of the body. The conditions show different features, though they are all characterized by abnormal growth of cells with the potential to invade or spread to other sections of the body. The condition is slightly different from benign tumors that entail abnormal growth of cells that do not spread throughout the body. Different types of cancer exist, such as cancer of the colon, cancer of the small intestines, skin cancer, and cervical cancer, among many more. The diagnosis and staging of the cancers vary from one type to another. Nurses play a critical role in providing care to chronic diseases such as cancer across many countries. They are always in direct interaction with the patient and health professionals and subordinate staff. Their role in caring for people with cancer cannot be ignored as they apply their theoretical knowledge learned in the classroom to practice.

1. The Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer

Cancer causes many symptoms, most of which are not caused by the cancer but by benign tumors or other related problems. Diagnosis requires a physical examination by a physician after noticing symptoms that last for several weeks. The doctor will order some tests and procedures to determine the cause of the symptoms. Some of the most common symptoms of cancer are related to the specific type. For instance, lumps or feeling of firmness on one’s breasts, changes in nipples, and having an itchy skin are common signs in breast cancer. Pain or trouble urinating and blood in the urine are common symptoms for cancer, especially prostate or cervical cancer. Other symptoms include bleeding while brushing teeth, coughing, fever or night sweats, and eating problems such as pain after eating and trouble swallowing. A study by Ward, Sherman, and Henley et al. (2019) note that some cancer conditions cause changes in the skin characterized by a flesh-colored lump that bleeds or turns scaly or a sore that does not heal. Weight loss or gain, mouth changes, and neurological problems (headaches, seizures, vision, and hearing changes) should compel one to visit a doctor to diagnose the problem. Some of these symptoms could point toward cancer. However, the doctor will order more procedures to determine the disease.

After finding out that one has cancer, the doctor will order more tests to determine the stage. According to Ward et al. (2019), staging is the process of finding out the extent of cancer in a patient’s body. The information obtained from staging helps doctors plan for treatment and predict the outlook of the patient. For instance, doctors treat an early stage of cancer using radiation or surgery to remove the malignant cells. Staging is also essential to establish the course of the treatment plan. However, not all cancers are staged because cancer of the blood, leukemia is not staged. The staging process begins by the doctor examining the size of the primary or main tumor, its location in the body, and its capability to grow into nearby areas (Ward et al., 2019). They will then proceed to check surrounding tumors or lymph nodes to establish whether cancer has spread into them. Many types of diseases spread into nearby lymph nodes before moving to other parts of the body. Lastly, physicians look for the spread of the cancer cells to other parts of the body.

The types of staging cancer used are the clinical and pathological staging. Clinical staging entails estimation of the extent of the disease based on results obtained from physical examinations, imaging tests, and tumor biopsies (Tsodikov, Gulati, Heijnsdijk, et al. 2017). The clinical staging is the most critical in deciding the most appropriate choice of treating cancer. The pathological stage is typical in cases of surgery. The pathological stage relies on the results obtained from examinations and tests, as well as what is learned about cancer from the surgery process. The objective of the surgery, in most cases, is to remove cancer and the surrounding lymph nodes. However, surgery may be done in some instances just to determine the amount of cancer in the body and taking out samples of the affected tissues.

2. Three Complications of Cancer, the Side Effects of Treatment, and Methods to Lessen Physical and Psychological Effects

The three common complications of cancer include:

• Pain
• Lumps in the breast
• Bleeding or bruising for unknown reasons
• Loss or gain of weight
• Skin conditions (jaundice or sore that does not heal)

Common side effects of treating cancer include:

• Anemia
• Loss of appetite
• Constipation
• Delirium
• Diarrhea
• Edema
• Fatigue
• Bleeding and bruising
• Problems in the urinary system or the bladder
• Pain
• Inflammation related to Immunotherapy

However, the side effects can depend on the type of cancer under treatment.

The methods to lessen physical and psychological pain include:

• Surgery and medications prescribed by the doctor are the most appropriate ways to reduce the effects of cancer on the body.

3. Factors Contributing to Yearly Incidence and Mortality Rates of Various Cancers in America

The incidence and mortality rates of cancer have been linked to several lifestyle factors. According to Patel, Armon, Chmiel, Brooks, Buchaz, Kathy, et al. (2014), most of the burden of cancer in the U.S. can be traced to health behaviors that can be modified to increase or lower a person’s risk of the disease. Among the common risk factors are smoking or using tobacco, physical inactivity, overweight and obesity, poor diet, and alcohol consumption. Others include exposure to the sun, sexual practices, and exposure to infected blood.

Predisposing risk factors to incidence and mortality from cancer include smoking, physical activity, obesity, and alcoholism. The use of tobacco is one of the predisposing factors for cancer. According to Patel et al. (2014), cigarette smoking causes over 440,000 premature deaths from cancer in the U.S., together with other causes, which amounts to 30% of the cancer incidences and fatalities (Mosher, Ott, Hanna, Jalal, & Champion, 2015). As a result, tobacco has been linked to lung cancer, oral, pharyngeal, laryngeal, and esophageal cancers, among many other types of cancers. Therefore, substantial health benefits exist for quitting smoking. On its part, physical activity has been linked to mental and physical health benefits such as reduced risks of premature death from cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, depression, cancer, and diabetes, among many more. A study by Siegel, Miller, and Jemal (2020) argues that physical activity is a complement to dietary management to avoiding gain in weight. About 11%-15% of breast and colorectal cancers may be attributed to inadequate physical activities. Overall, sedentary lifestyles have been linked to 23% of mortality cases arising from chronic diseases, cancer being one of them (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2020). The lifestyle is also related to colon, breast, lung, and prostate cancer. Increasing physical activities generally improve one’s health.

Obesity, a balanced diet, and alcohol consumption are contributory risk factors that increase cancer among Americans. Excess fat arising from being overweight and obese contributes to numerous medical conditions, especially cardiovascular diseases and significant causes of cancer (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2020). The situation has been attributed to a person’s diet that is characterized consumption of fats and carbohydrates compared to vitamins or a balanced diet. It has also been attributed to a sedentary lifestyle. Together with alcohol consumption, they increase incidences and risks from cancer among Americans.

4. How the American Cancer Society (ACS) Might Provide Education and Support. What ACS Services Would you Recommend and Why?

ACS is performing its mandate by doing several activities supporting cancer patients. First, victims can reach oncologists among other specialists at any time of the day or night for a whole week through a phone call (ACS, 2020). ACS has also provided a source of information related to cancer. People interested in knowing more about the disease they are suffering from can access the information and seek clarification from available experts. For instance, they can obtain information about patient services, support groups, social services, and publications.

Furthermore, they can access details about community programs that ACS provides together with financial and social support to people living with cancer (ACS, 2020). I would recommend the social support and community program services that ACS provides to people living with cancer. The services help the patients understand that they are not alone suffering from the condition. The emotional and social support is critical for healing. ACS does it to promote the well-being of the patient and his or her family.

5. How the Nursing Process is utilized to Provide Safe and Effective Care for Cancer Patients across the Life Span Your explanation should include each of the five phases and demonstrate the delivery of holistic and patient-focused care.

Cancer represents one of the leading mortality causes across the globe. It is estimated that the condition killed about 1.2 people worldwide, and 171,000 new cases were reported in 2012 (Lavdaniti, 2017). Oncology nurses are nurses working in cancer units. They are responsible for providing care for the patients, including processes such as diagnosis, treatment, and establishing the possibility of recurrence. Nurses further help in estimating the survival period, offer palliative care, and assist in the peaceful death of people living with cancer. The needs of people living with cancer include physical, psychological, social, financial, and information needs, among many more. Nurses identify the specific needs of the patients using a holistic approach. The nursing philosophy entails the adoption of nursing care that integrates all dimensions. The nurses focus their attention on the quality of life of the patient following the holistic philosophy (Lavdaniti, 2017). Physical care of patients entails careful nursing history, assessment of symptoms, design of appropriate care plans, and utilization of various physical nursing interventions such as evidence-based nursing practice. They also provide psychosocial care from the beginning of diagnosis to the late/final stages. In essence, nurses provide holistic care to contribute to the treatment of people living with cancer.

6. How Undergraduate Education in Liberal Arts and Science Studies Contributes to the foundation of nursing knowledge and prepares nurses to work with patients utilizing the nursing process. Consider mathematics, social and physical sciences, and science studies as an interdisciplinary research area.

The expertise of liberal arts and sciences is useful in teaching and enlightening nursing learners. Math is essential in the calculation of education doses, while social and physical sciences help diagnose the overall social and economic condition of cancer patients (Kooken & Kerr, 2017). The interdisciplinary research is critical in the holistic application of nursing practice. Therefore, these elements are essential in helping nurses take care of people with cancer.

References

ACS. (2020). Cancer staging. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.org/treatment/understanding-your-diagnosis/staging.html

ACS. (2020). How we’re providing support. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.org/about-us/what-we-do/providing-support.html

Kooken, W. C., & Kerr, N. (2018). Blending the liberal arts and nursing: Creating a portrait for the 21^st century. Journal of Professional Nursing, 34(1), 60-64. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2017.07.002

Lavdaniti, M. (2017). Holistic nursing approach to patients with cancer. Journal of Nursing Care, 6(1), 1-2. http://doi.org/10.4172/2167-1168.1000e136

Mosher, C., Ott, M., Hanna, N., Jalal, S., & Champion, V. (2015). Coping with physical and psychological symptoms: A qualitative study of advanced lung cancer patients and their family caregivers. Support Care Cancer, 23(7), 2053-2060. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-014-2566-8

Negoita, S., Feuer, E. J., Mariotto, A., et al. (2018). Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, part II: Recent changes in prostate cancer trends and disease characteristics. Cancer, 124, 2801-2814.

Patel, P., Armon, C., Chmiel, J., Brooks, J., Buchaz, K., Kathy, W., et al. (2014). Factors associated with cancer incidence and with all-cause mortality after cancer diagnosis among human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons during the combination antiretroviral therapy era. Open Forum of Infectious Diseases, 1(1),

Siegel, R., Miller, K., & Jemal, A. (2020). Cancer statistics, 2020.  CA Cancer Journal of Clinicians, 70(1), 7-29. http://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21590

Tsodikov, A., Gulati, R., Heijnsdijk, E. A. M., et al. (2017). Reconciling the effects of screening on prostate cancer mortality in the ERSPC and PLCO trials. Ann Intern. Med., 167, 449-455.

Ward, E., Sherman, R. L., Henley, S. J., et al. (2019). Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1999-2015, featuring cancer in men and women ages 20-49. Journal of National Cancer Institute. http://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djz106.