African Wildlife Ecotourism
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Tarangire National Park (TNP) uses the Community Conservation Service (CCS) of the Tanzania National Park (TANAPA) initiative to protect wildlife. This initiative is part of the Ujirani Mwema (good neighborliness) program, which requires the local people to preserve the Park for its continued existence (pp. 149). TANAPA identifies the risks associated with changing land use that surround the Park. In 1992, the initiative surveyed people’s attitudes, practices, and knowledge concerning wild animals. The findings helped to teach people how to embrace activities that support the Ujarani Mwema program. Private sectors and NGOs have also introduced other practices in the community that enhances the conservation of wildlife (pp. 149). The main objective of CCS is to conserve and minimize adverse effects on resources by reducing conflict and introducing ways to solve them.
On the other hand, Mahenye Park uses Zimbabwe CAMPFIRE Program to obtain revenue from safari sport hunting. Hunting safaris do not need high capital investment in the lodge and extended lease period to realize an initial investment. Furthermore, it also does not heavily rely on well-developed air, road transport, and energy network, unlike the other forms of ecotourism. Hunting safari enterprises can easily be accommodated in undeveloped infrastructures of most CAMPFIRE districts. They are successful in places with no immediate photogenic and exotic appeals. Like other forms of ecotourism, hunting safaris are highly dependent on an active marketing network. The flexibility, low initial capital, mobility, and high revenue had made hunting safaris the most entrepreneurial choice for most CAMPFIRE districts.
However, safari hunting is not the best use of natural and wildlife resources in all contexts. For instance, some areas may have micro-environment scenic or recreational attractions, which can create an ecotourism market (177). This market can enhance other initiatives like camping sites facilitating sales of snacks and drinks. Locally managed tourism sites have the advantage of encouraging local entrepreneurial practices. However, a study done in 1998 indicated that these businesses operated at a level of marginal financial viability due to marketing and managerial problems (pp. 179). The study also showed that the international, national, and regional markets remain untapped, which can be exploited through improved marketing and managerial structure. Other areas of CAMPFIRE districts have a prime site which can be used for international tourism. They include shoreline of Lake Kariba, Victoria Falls, and micro-habitat for rare faunal and floral species. These places have revenue potential for international tourism and may exceed that of safari hunting. If this opportunity is tapped, the program will be able to collect even more revenue by shifting from hunting safaris to other forms of ecotourism.
TNP occupies an area of 2642 km2 in Tanzania, as indicated back in 1957. The park bonders Mukungero Game Control Area (GCA) to the south, the Lolkisale GCA to the north-east, Mto wa Mbu GCA to the north, and the SImanjiro GCA to the east. The Park is savanna and covers a small portion of the Tarangire ecosystem. It is a dry season refuge for migratory animals in ecosystem (pp. 149). The wildlife of TNP is made of a big mammal animals that include 58 species of East African savanna. The Park also hosts the most critical herbivores in eastern Africa and the highest population of elephants in upper Tanzania. Studies have shown that big mammals in Tarangire depended on food outside the Park for over six months per year. They depend on GCAs and large pieces of land used for agriculture around the Park (pp. 149). Licensed hunting is allowed within the GCAs and other human activities like cultivation and settlement. TANAPA controls over TNP and negotiates with the surrounding private landowners, villagers and local government to safeguard wild animals.
Nevertheless, TNP experiences several managerial problems such as rapid population growth and subsequent human activities around the National Park. Without strategic land-use planning, the critical wildlife migratory route may be lost, and the pack risk of becoming an island Park hosting only the local species. This outcome will significantly lower the economic value of Tanzania through tourism, which is an important commercial tool for the local nationals. TNP is one of the most popular tourist destinations due to its strategic location. Tourists increased steadily during the 1990s, which projected steady growth even in the coming years. The Park receives more revenue than the allocated budget giving a significant return to the country.
On the other side, Mahenye lies at the southern end of the chipinge district, covering an area of 210 km2 in ndowoyo community land. It bonders Mozambique borders in east, Save River in the west, which separate it from Gonarezhou National park and Sangwe community land. To the north, it bonders Mutandahwe ward of Ndowoyu communal land (pp. 179). It receives a low average rainfall of about 450-500 mm per annum, supporting the cultivation of grains in several seasons. The eviction of Mahenye people by colonialism from their traditional land forced them to live around the Park perimeter. They had made hunting a significant component of their livelihood practice, and they believed fighting for independence would restore their hunting rights. However, the new government reinforced Park regulation and introduced anti-poaching raids in the Mahenye ward. This protection of the pack was to promote foreign exchange through international tourists. However, people were devastated as buffalos and elephants would raid their gardens regularly, threatening their only means of survival (pp.181). Therefore, they were forced to feed on animals as they had eaten their crops.
Additionally, the TANAPA program advocates for the protection of wildlife as it was the most popular and comprehensive program for Community Conservation activities around TNP. The NGOs and the private sector have heavily supported this initiative. The CCS activities started in 1991 around the TNP, which was a strategic action plan for Park conservation. At that time, Tarangire hosted the second-largest CCS program, but it weakened in the mid-1990s. Contrary, the CAMPFIRE Program does not support the protection of wild animals in Mahenye Park. In early 1982, Mahenye leadership held a meeting with Gonarezhou warden, aiming to improve their relationship with the Park. The community held that if the government allowed them to trade wildlife on safari hunting market, then they would accept the loss of crop damage. This struggle led to the allocation of people to the mainland, shifting from prime habitat area, which reduced poaching activities. In 1990, the chipinge district council was allowed under the CAMPFIRE program to conduct hunting practices for wildlife revenue (pp. 184). Since then, Mahenye safari hunting and wildlife management practices have been done by CAMPFIRE arrangements. The capacity to generate revenue through Mahenye hunting is mainly dependent on elephants. Other animal species such as buffalos, impala, leopard, bushbuck, and grysbok are limited in numbers. Nevertheless, the capacity of the Park to increase its hunting revenue is unlikely to grow significantly as the wildlife continues to reduce.
Moreover, TNP has engaged two tourist operators, Oliver’s Camp and Dorobo Safaris, to promote local tourism since 1990 (pp. 153). These private companies have shown a promising outcome in enhancing community wildlife management. Despite the different principles and philosophies of both companies, they were able to have a united way of working with the locals. Currently, both companies have contracts with villages granting them exclusive rights of tourist operations within the respective town (153). From this initiative, the locals have benefited from Tshs 10 million between 1990 and 1993. The involvement of villagers has enhanced accountability and transparency throughout the whole process. Company directors are also keen to ensure funds go down to the local levels, and villagers are involved in deciding on how funds are to be used.
Similarly, the Mahenye Wildlife Committee introduced other possible enterprises to boost the earning potential of their natural resources since 1991. There was the introduction of safari concession as an additional game-viewing activity. This activity led to the development of proposals on joint ventures which were presented to the District Council. These proposals included a safari camp at Chivirira, safari hunting on Ngwachumene, development of wildlife management area in the north, and establishment of crocodile and ostrich farm on Gombe Island. However, the community lacked resources to actualize those proposals until 1994 when the first Mahenye lodge was opened, accommodating 16 guests (pp. 185).
Both TNP and Mahenye Parks have resulted in significant benefits in their countries. For instance, Tarangire National Park has increased the value of local communities through the TANAPA benefit-sharing program. A substantial amount of revenue has been used to develop the infrastructures leading to a change in attitude toward National Park. The locals have also embraced dialogue and cooperation as ways to solve hostility and enmity. Developing environment policy in Tanzania and initiatives like wildlife management areas have also increased opportunities for locals to benefit from communal and private land. The TNP is dependent on the dynamic and complex interaction between human relationships, livelihood issues, cultural values, and economic benefits. This interaction shows that individuals residing within the Park have cultural values that ensure wildlife continues to live in their habitat (pp, 159). Wildlife is seen to have more value beyond just economic benefits and costs in that it also helps people to know different animals.
Likewise, Mahenye Park has yielded a significant benefit to community infrastructure and the annual revenue of the country. It has also promoted intra-communal cohesiveness as communities are brought together by a common interest. Moreover, it has facilitated the growth of social energy. Besides, the Mahenye is led by people in a position of influence, such as the chief, respected elder, school headmaster, and elected leadership (pp. 193). They have provided balanced leadership leading to the success of the Park. It has also enhanced the growth of the private sector by creating entrepreneurial opportunities. For instance, lodges have been established, contributing high revenues to the government and supporting local projects. Therefore, both TNP and Mahenye Park are different and similar in various ways. Both have similarities in that they have an economic benefit to the local communities and the government. However, they are different in that TNP promotes wildlife conservation while Mahenye Park enhances poaching through safari hunting.