Cross-Cultural Views on Female Leadership
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
There are so many factors in the present day that are perceived to be affecting leadership. Among these factors are globalization, technological developments, and innovations, as well as global political change. These factors significantly influence thinking as far as the concept of leadership is concerned (Flabbi, 2019). Leadership and culture have, for so long, remained debatable. This is mainly owing to the different stereotypes that have been associated with the different genders, which, to a great extent, are based on implicit beliefs (Garfield et al., 2019). As much as various researchers have tried to explore this area of knowledge, they have failed to provide a vivid picture of leadership by failing to answer important questions, some of which pertain to the effectiveness of leadership. For instance, there is vast knowledge available about how the culture of a given people influences the leadership styles that are applied by such people (Stephan & Pathak, 2016). Extensive research, therefore, needs to be done to explore this topic, particularly because the global leadership processes are growing at a rate that is so fast and therefore there is a dire need for to prove the need for the acknowledgment of women as able leaders and hence to hasten their participation in the various managerial positions. This research will explore the views of different stakeholders on the issue of female leadership to make evidence-based contributions to the field of gender, leadership, and cultural studies.
Problem Statement
For so long, women have been facing several barriers in their attempt to venture into the various leadership related careers. Some of these barriers include family barriers, for instance, spousal restrictions and family responsibilities e.g., raising children, while other barriers are related to organizational constraints, for example, the culture of considering men as superior and gender discrimination (Sczesny et al., 2019). These barriers are gone so far as preventing women from attaining leadership positions as well as achieving top academic positions(Flabbi, 2019). The truth is women are equally as good as men when it comes to leadership since they also demonstrate qualities such as intelligence, and honesty among many other traits that are required for effective leadership. In this study, the various cross-cultural views on female leadership will be explored to identify the barriers affecting female leadership.
Justification of the Study
This study is necessary as it will make essential contributions to the scope of leadership, gender, and cultural studies because global leadership processes and its significance is rapidly growing, especially in the 21st Century. This entire issue is calling for research that will help in the synthesis of knowledge on women’s leadership.
Objectives of the Study
Broad Objectives
To explore cross-cultural views on Female Leadership
Specific Objectives
The following objectives will guide this study;
- To define culture
- To explain the concept of women and leadership
- To determines the barriers that women face in developing leadership related careers
- To assess the various cross-cultural views on female leadership
Research Questions
- What is Culture?
- What is meant women and leadership?
- What are the barriers that women encounter as they try to venture into the various leadership related careers?
- What views do people from various cultures hold concerning female leadership?
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Culture is a general term that is used to refer to norms as well as the social behaviors that exist in our societies. It also entails the beliefs, customs, and laws as well as the habits of individuals interacting together in a given society. Culture is responsible for shaping the values and attitudes, which in return influences the perceptions of people in various matters, including phenomena such as leadership. Den Harto, & Dickson, (2018) argue that nearly every aspect of culture influences leadership in terms of behavior goals and strategies. The question of whether men are better than women when it comes to leadership or whether the two groups are equally good when it comes to leadership has remained a paradox. However, women have continued to be discriminated against when it comes to opportunities for promotion (Garfield et al., 2019). The truth is an individual’s efforts and abilities should be what determines whether they suit a given position or not.
Women and Leadership
For so long, women have remained on short supply at top leadership positions in a variety of contexts, including both in politics as well as organizations. This is not to mean that women lack the qualifications for the various leadership positions, but instead, it is because of gender discrimination whereby the males have been stereotyped as better leaders (Klenke, 2015). The world is, however, fast advancing that it is necessary to shift these stereotypical ideas since gender equality in this content is going to benefit everyone. As much as the gender gap that exists in leadership is pervasive, it can be solved (Rhode, 2017). This will, however, require the collaboration of different stakeholders, including policymakers, employers as well as every other individual, to effect the desired change. As for individuals, everyone needs to understand their own subconscious biases and strive to change these biases (De La Rey, 2015). As for employers, they need to create a workplace culture that provides for equity in all aspects, including leadership. This will create an environment that allows for fair expectations and flexibility for both genders. Policymakers, on the other hand, need to formulate and ensure the enforcement of fair policies by making good use of tools such as diversity training.
Barriers Women Face in Developing Leadership Related Careers
An empirical study done by Haile, Emmanuel & Dzathor (2016) demonstrated that women in leadership positions are fewer than men (Klenke, 2015). Some of the factors that were mentioned by participants in the study showed that women in leadership positions are less than the men in such positions because of gender role stereotypes explicit and implicit discriminations at the workplace and the glass ceiling effect. Another issued that was found to be preventing women from climbing up the leadership ladder is the existence of policies in organizations which are not gender friendly. Rincón Diez, González & Barrero, (2017) in another study established that for women who have managed to progress to higher leadership levels in organizations, their autonomy is restricted by the traditional masculinity model of management. The effect of gender stereotypes is still felt even in the present day. Sczesny et al. (2019) argue that organizational cultures are also to blame when it comes to understanding the barriers that women face in leadership. This is because the culture of a given organization will define the norms as well as the practices in place in that organization.
Cross-Cultural Views on Female Leadership
According to Garfield et al. (2019), every culture has a unique developmental history behind it. The issue of gender and leadership is of great concern, especially in these recent times. A study by Howe-Walsh & Turnbull (2016) that was conducted on the gender differences that exist in leadership demonstrated that women are more participative and democratic when it comes to leadership as compared to their male counterparts who tend to be autocratic. So it is not enough to say that women cannot make effective leaders (De La Rey, 2015). Quite a good number of researchers’ culture and leadership are interlinked empirically. Women are believed to be physically weak, and emotional and myths have it that they are not able to administer discipline other workers, particularly their male counterparts. Women have also been stereotyped as not being task-oriented and as extremely dependent (Rhode, 2017). The number of women in leadership is small. For this reason, there are no adequate role models for other women who want to venture into leadership. This lack of encouragement causes the number of women leaders to remain low.
Conclusion
In a nutshell, culture refers to the beliefs, norms, and practices of a given person. Culture shapes the attitude of a given person. The number of women in leadership remains low. Some of the factors that have been associated with this are the stereotypes against women that they are weak and cannot be able to execute leadership functions. Among other things that are a hindrance to women participating in leadership include family barriers, for instance, spousal restrictions and family responsibilities e.g., raising children, while other barriers are related to organizational constraints, for, example the culture of considering men as superior and gender discrimination.
METHODOLOGY
Study Design
In this study, a descriptive cross-sectional study design will be used to assess the cross-cultural views of the chosen participants towards female leadership. Both men and women in the selected organization will be allowed to give their views of female leadership. Even though it does not address the question, ‘why’ the descriptive study design will enable us to address the question ‘what,’ which is, in this case, the views held by people from the different cultures concerning female leadership.
Study Population
An organization will have employees from different cultural backgrounds. In this study, the study population will comprise employees in the organization, including those in managerial positions as well as the subordinates.
Sample Size Determination
In calculating the sample size, the formula n= (Z) 2 p (1-P)/d2 will be used whereby n will be the selected sample size, Z will be the normal distribution value for 95% confidence interval, p the proportion of the population which will be used in sample size determination, and d is the level of precision or rather the margin of error that is acceptable that is 0.05. In this study, 75 % of the population (p) will be used to determine the sample size.
n = (0.5*(1-0.5)) ÷ ((0.05/1.96))2
n=0.25÷0.00065077
n= 384
Because the source population contains less than 10,000 people, there is a need to use a correction formula, which is n = (N×X) ÷(X + N – 1), N, in this case, is the approximate number of the target population which is 160 participants.
The true sample size (n) will therefore be;
n= (384×160) ÷ (160 +384-1)
n=114 Participants
Sampling Technique
The sampling technique that will be utilized in this study will be simple random sampling, in which case the required number of participants will be selected randomly using ballot or rotary method to obtain the number of participants required. This method will ensure that every individual will have an equal chance of participating in the study.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Inclusion Criteria: Every employee working in the organization, regardless of whether they are male or female, will be allowed to participate in the study.
Data Collection Techniques/ Instruments
For this study, a self-administered questionnaire will be used as the data collection tool. The questionnaire will consist of 20 questions covering both open-ended and closed, covering the views of the different participants regarding female leadership. Any relevant changes will be made on the questionnaire after the supervisor has reviewed it. The questionnaire will also require the participants to give their details, which will include but not limited to sex, level of education, and religion, among other things.
Data Analysis and Presentation
The data will be analyzed using statistical tools, particularly Statistical Package for Social Sciences, after which a descriptive analysis of the data will be done, and then it will be presented in the form of tables, graphs, and charts.
Ethical Considerations
The purpose and objectives if this study will be well explained to every participant, after which both a verbal and written consent will be obtained. Participants will reserve the right to willingly participate in the study or withdraw at any point without incurring any losses. The participants will also be required to maintain anonymity by not writing their names or personal details n the questionnaire.
Limitations of the Study
The sample will consist of participants only from one organization. The results that will be obtained cannot, therefore, be generalized to the entire population. Apart from that, the correlation with other determinants; for instance, the level of education will not be possible since individuals working together in an organization are almost of the same level of education.
APPENDIX A
Informed Consent
I, (Name), (Signature) , has been explained to the purpose and objectives of this study on cross-cultural views on female leadership by Date, , and I confirm that I was granted to ask any question or raise any confirm with regards to the study and I confirm that all my questions were responded to satisfactorily. I, therefore, consent to participate in this study, and I reserve the right to withdraw my consent at any given time without incurring any losses.
References
De La Rey, C. (2015). Gender, women, and leadership. Agenda, 19(65), 4-11.
Den Hartog, D. N., & Dickson, M. W. (2018). Leadership and culture.
Garfield, Z. H., von Rueden, C., & Hagen, E. H. (2019). The evolutionary anthropology of political leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 59-80.
Flabbi, L., Macis, M., Moro, A., & Schivardi, F. (2019). Do female executives make a difference? The impact of female leadership on gender gaps and firm performance. The Economic Journal, 129(622), 2390-2423.
Haile, S., Emmanuel, T., & Dzathor, A. (2016). BARRIERS AND CHALLENGES CONFRONTING WOMEN FOR LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT POSITIONS: REVIEW AND ANALYSIS. International Journal of Business & Public Administration, 13(1).
Howe-Walsh, L., & Turnbull, S. (2016). Barriers to women leaders in academia: tales from science and technology. Studies in Higher Education, 41(3), 415-428.
Klenke, K. (2015). Women and leadership: A contextual perspective. Springer publishing company.
Rhode, D. L. (2017). Women and leadership. Oxford University Press.
Rincón Diez, V., González, M., & Barrero, K. (2017). Women and leadership: Gender barriers to senior management positions. Intangible Capital, 13(2), 319-386.
Sczesny, S., Bosak, J., Neff, D., & Schyns, B. (2017). Gender stereotypes and the attribution of leadership traits: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex roles, 51(11-12), 631-645.
Stephan, U., & Pathak, S. (2016). Beyond cultural values? Cultural leadership ideals and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(5), 505-523.