Development of Drama in Africa

Development of Drama in Africa

Micheal Etherton in his book Development of Drama in Africa, looks at Traditional drama in contemporary society. He looks at how contemporary drama has borrowed several aspects of the traditional drama. Etherton also looks at travel theatre groups in Africa and their development.  The nature of contemporary drama in Africa can only be understood by studying its historical roots. Modern drama, operas and performances trace their origin to ritual dramas in Africa. Etherton analyses the modern village festival.

The Kalankiiwa festival that he and other colleagues from Ibadan University attended. He, in his research, reinforces Aristoliean rules of drama; he looks at drama beyond the final product and focuses on the means of production of drama. The effects of colonial history are evident in modern-day drama. Is modern African theatre functional, according to Micheal Etherton? Contemporary African theatre is functional as it is a means of moving society to speak the ills that exist in neocolonial African Society. Etherton further states that “African theatre is not confined within constructed architectural spaces but is flexible and free” During the festival that he attends, he has a problem distinguishing the villagers from the performers. He has a hard time separating the performance and actions taking place in the play; this is in contrast to European drama that takes place in confined spaces.

Etherton, in his work, attempts to explain the difference between theatre and drama. He does not use the two words interchangeably as done by other researches on drama. Etherton looks at people not as an audience but actors and creators of drama. In defining popular theater he asserts that:

“Through which intellectuals’ try to communicate with the people of a disadvantaged society, either by presenting plays that articulate the problems of the society or by getting the people to present plays of themselves that lead the people to analyze the society” (Crow and Etherton 1982, p. 574.)

The problem of defining African drama is further addressed; African drama presents us with key questions; Where and when does it begin? What are it’s perimeters? The problem of definition is considered an academic problem because it requires discussing in more exquisite detail the art forms and its rules. Etherton fails to give a specific definition, and offers perspectives that we can use to define African drama.  The new drama of the scripted play coexists with the traditional forms of drama. Modern African drama is described to be a blend of the traditional and contemporary forms, making it rich. In understanding contemporary African drama, it is important to interrogate several traditional practices, for example, the annual “ Igogo festival” at Owo in Western Nigeria. The Dahomey “Cult dramas” and the Masquerades of the Elkine society. The traditional rituals and other aspects of traditional theatre are present in modern-day drama.

The difference between traditional drama and the contemporary forms of drama, stems out in the functions of drama. Traditional theatre was inspired by certain necessities, spiritual andand economic. The traditional drama had a communal aspect that portrayed an organic community working together. The drama showed the communities beliefs, fears and hopes. It had a placation of the gods and a placebo of the dead interceding for the living. Traditional drama lacked a proper, the audience was fluid and indefinable as they constantly merge with the performers. The theatre also lacked definite authors.

Modern drama is presently organized, and takes place in buildings, confined architectural spaces. With specific authors and directors. Modern drama unlike traditional drama goes beyond communicating the communities’ beliefs but portrays the frustrations of the middle class. It is important not the development of political theatre; Dedan Kimathi and Micere Mugo in Kenya chose a figure of political interest like Dedan Kimathi to be at the center of the play. The play that goes beyond the trial depicts the unity. Ngugi  Wa Thiong’o created the Kamirithu educational and community center that stage the play ” I will Marry When I want.” The theatre rubbed the government of Kenya the wrong way, it was later closed. Other African plays have been woven around historical events and characters. Wole Soyinka in writing his place focuses on the political space, in his pioneer play “ A dance of the forests” he comments on the August  independence ceremony, and critics the attendants to be power-hungry individuals. Some theatre groups have aimed to maintain cultural practices.

A contrast of Modern African drama and European theatre will bring out a difference in organization and performance. African drama exploits traditional forms; dance, mime speech , music and audience participation. European drama on the other hand, focused on the speech and intellect of humans. Robert Serumanga and Abafumi Theatre Company of Uganda integrates all the forms and hardly relies on human speech in their performances.

Etherton, in an attempt to explain and understand African drama, attends the Kalankiiwa festival, a festival that was carried out each year by the villagers and farmers who previously had worked with students from the unity to develop plays for the farmers. The contrast and difference between the two plays are key in understanding the development of drama in Africa. The Kalankiiwa festival was an annual ceremony and was conducted with established conventions; the young adults in the village took various roles to play. The festival was a modern form of harvest ceremony. The harvest ceremony was conducted after the harvest.

The stage for the performance was Bomo village, the roads on both sides were blocked and villagers who were not actors were charged some fee. The village had various booths labeled, “ministry of Agriculture,” “hospitals,” and other agencies to serve as deceptions. The farmers trooped in with costumes of the roles they were playing, for nurses, police officers, and even military general. Some were dressed like politicians. The plays reflected what was happening in Nigeria. During the role-play, the military general handed over reports to the civilian politicians. The organizers gave awards to those who played their role well, the award money was acquired from a farm that the villagers worked on collectively and from fees charged at the entrance. During the Kalanukwa festival, villages could also participate in liberties, for example, gambling.

African drama is functional as it serves a great purpose in the society beyond entertainment. It serves a specific role in the cultures and communities that practice it. The roots of African dram gives it a sense of purpose. The purpose of African theatre is not only found in the material for its performance but its reception and performance. The theatre draws from traditional arts and conventions, the experiential nature of meaning and ephemeral performances becomes hard from ‘outsiders’ to internet. The meaning of the play lies between the actors and audience as they use stylistic conventions that can only be understood between them. A case in point is dances;

Etherton discusses the influence of urban on theatre in Africa. He notes that Yoruba traveling theatres have been eclectic: the influence of Western dramatic modes has been combined with the theatre traditionally known as Adedeji. The theatre involved music from the different Yoruba kingdoms, and Masquerades, Gelede, and Egungun.  Ogunde, aside from having the domination of the traditional convents, had dialogues in the drama. He is considered a pioneer of dialogue in drama in Nigeria. Travelling theatre developed due to the free market economy and evolved over the years depending on the changes in the society and political set up of the people. Drama is seen as a response of the people to the challenges as the evolution in theatre reflected the various changes in the politics and society. Travel theatre groups are rated based on their ability to sell various personalities.

Ogunde theatre developed through four stages. The phase of cultural nationalism, consolidation of the company through independence, post-independence party politics, and The Company from the civil war to today. The theatre groups’ created renowned personalities that the audience throughout Yoruba a land can easily relate with, for example, the figure of Ogunde that is today considered the father of theatre in Nigeria. Ogunde inspired others; for example, Ogun Mola and Dura Ladipo’s. By contrast, Duro Ladipo plays have a detailed        structure of meaning through their imaginative dramatization of key Yoruba myths. For example, in his most famous play, Oba So, different elements all contribute quite specifically to the play’s overall meaning, such as symbolism, both in the dialogue and the spectacle on stage, and the play’s formal rhythm through which characterization is established and the story unfolds.

The play tells the story of Sango, who, as a king incapable of controlling his two very influential and powerful general. The King ends up committing suicide and is transformed to the Go of thunder. In the afterlife, the King negates his acts of self-destruction. The plays border to Wole Soyinka Play; Death and the King’s Horsemen. In the play Elesin, the king’s horseman, breaks from the usual convention and requests to have an heir before he does his destined duty of dying to join the king and to create the passage for the King. Elesin is arrested but the ritual continues as the women come demanding that he be released. The kings on ends up killing himself in a bid to save the community. The play shows the attitude of the people towards the gods. An attitude of fear.

South Africans compare Oguned and Kente. There plays are different as they portray different political issues. Plays have stories of how different communities and societies cope with day to day challenges of life. South Africans in their plays depict the evils of apartheid and arbitrary violence. The plays lack clear beginnings and end as the characters are shown to undergo a series of crises; people are stealing, robbing, some are getting killed, and similar scenes are common in South African plays. In the Kenyan context plays show the countries struggle, for example, the play “The Trial of Dedan Kimathi” by Ngugi Wa Thiongo and Micere Mugo shows the Mau Mau struggle, the play “I will Marry When I want” has the land issues key to it. The land issue is central in the story of Kenya as the whites took the white highlands and used Africans as cheap labour, the land issue gets worse after independence when Africans now take advantage of one another.

Another township play is Unosilimela by Credo Mutwa. Unosilimela the central character is the daughter of a mythical princess. The play talks about the need to revive African culture.

Drama, according to Etherton is shown to reflect collective experiences; it is a social and cooperate act. The circumstances of performance must, therefore, be organized, for example, the Ceremony of the Kuomboka that is done in the flooding Zambezi, or the night in Lagos national theatre. Plays must depict groups or society collective experience through the expression of particular social sensibilities akin to the society. Drama is therefore defined as a performance with a frame set which recurs from actuality to performance. Etherton looks at plays beyond content and form and analyses the process of developing a drama. It is a recreation process where ordinary life is recreated to an art. This is the work of an artist. The process where some plays become popular and other are lost and the process of passing plays from generation to generation. It is key to understand these process to be able to demystify African Drama.

The efficacy of Drama in creating consciousness. Etherton observed the Kalankiiwa festival where different characters played different roles; some played the role of army officers, other played the role of political leaders. Further, he observed that the people by being able to organize the festival displayed high levels of organization that they at the university had not imagined. He argues that drama has a life of its own and can raise consciousness as it is a mode of communication. The audience of drama is allowed to take collective refuge. Drama engages the individuals in a fiction of everyday reality. It is a tool that can be used to critic governments and educate the citizens as seen in drama of catalysts, drama drafted by individuals in universities or leaned individuals. Individuals with special skills. Community development workers can use drama to educate and point out various issues to the people.

Indeed, this sort of conscientization’ of the masses is seen even by socialist governments as interference of its own programmes and perspectives. It might not be allowed to function beyond its self –imposed local limitations; and even then the dramatic skills and techniques may as well be used for reactionary and ultimately repressive policies (Crow and Etherton 1989, p. 577)

Catalysts are usually individuals with high social consciousness. They use drama to pass information to the masses. Micere Mugo in Kenya works side by side with Ngugi Wa Thiong’o to write the play “The Trial of Dedan Kimathi” to respond to the society that needed a hero at that point in history. The play provides the people with a hero, who can inspire youths to revolt against oppression by governments in neo-colonial Kenya.

In conclusion, the traditional drama has a place in contemporary drama across Africa, in spite of the disruptions that were brought by the colonizers. Some of the renowned forms of traditional drama in contemporary society are Egungun that is performed by the Yoruba at the beginning of harvest season, it is an elaboarate masquerade.Ghana has the Ananesama tales that are designed to reinforce morals in the society. Sierra Leone has the Domei that is performed in a circle. The narrator is usually at the center of the circle; the audience participates by clapping and dancing. The narrator possesses interruption, and questions from time to time. The Koteba in Mali is aspired dance that imitates the snail. Ingoma and Indlamu in South Africa are performed during wedding and initiation ceremonies, respectively. The performances are accompanied by specific attire, and mostly in specific places.

References

Etherton, M. (1982). The development of African drama. Africana Pub.

Kamlongera, C. (2005). Theatre for development in Africa. Media and Glocal Change: Rethinking Communication for Development, 435-452.

Ngugi, J., wa Thiong’o, N., wa Thiongʼo, N., & wa Thiong’o, N. (1981). Writers in Politics: Essays. East African Publishers.

Wilkinson, J. (Ed.). (1992). Talking with African writers: interviews with African poets, playwrights & novelists. J. Currey.