Hate Crimes

Hate Crimes

Abstract

According to numerous reports, hate crimes have been on the rise since twenty-fifteen in thirty major cities in the United States. Although the rates of crime in general has been decreasing throughout the country, reports show a trend where hate crimes have been increasing each year for the last few years. From statistics, these vicious attacks seem to be aiming at particular segments of the population more frequently. The populations most targeted are Black Americans, the Jews and the LGBTQ community. This report discusses the various causes of hate crimes and the measures that can be put in place to curb the current situationIntroduction

With an increase of diversity in the United States, there has been an upsurge of crimes. Many people from minority groups have suffered both verbal and physical abuse because of their different orientation. The United States has tried in many ways to contain crimes attributed to hate for people of divergent places of origin but it is not enough. Not enough has been done because instead of these hate crimes reducing they have been increasing over the last few years. There is need for various communities to co-exist in peace without hate. No one should have to face discrimination on the basis of their religion or race. Therefore, there is need to create awareness in various communities on the benefits of living with different communities in harmony.

Statement of Problem

In twenty-eighteen, two thousand and nine hate crimes were registered in comparison to one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six crimes that were recorded in twenty-seventeen (Burks et al., 2018). The rising cases of hate crime is an indication of a problem that should be contained as soon as possible to protect victims of these attacks.

Causes of Hate Crime

There are two kinds of hate crimes which include household crime and personal crime. These kinds of crime can be explained through a clarification of their various causes. It is vital to understand the main factors that have led to an increase in hate crimes.

Social Psychological Explanations to Hate Crime

Personality Explanations   

Psychologists in the mid-twentieth century opined that people with high levels of prejudice against specific groups of people are suffering from “The Authoritarian Personality.” Theories that have come up in the recent past also advocate this line of thought.  According to the Right-Wing Authoritarianism, the personal history of an individual can trigger a deferential orientation towards those in positions of authority (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). Other individuals conform to societal expectations and even inculcate negative attitudes towards minority groups in their environment. Essentially, this group consists of individuals who are more inclined to challenging things that are considered normal. The Social Dominance Theory assumes that people have different extents in which they can go to achieve power or to be superior (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). Therefore, those who desire more power discriminate others because of the mistaken belief that their “in-group’ is more important than others.

These two approaches play a significant role in understanding the causes of prejudice.  The two theories are connected to discrimination against immigrants, the LGBTQ community, religious groups, minority ethnic groups and even the disabled. The motivation to express prejudice against others has recently been tested. The report indicates that there are different motivations that enable people to contain their prejudice to particular groups of people is not strongly connected to Social Dominance Orientation or Right-Wing Authoritarianism. Instead, the proclivity to communicate such attitudes is connected to the inability of an individual to control their behavior or emotions.

Cognitive Explanations

According to some psychological approaches, mental process play a role in creating discriminatory attitudes. This can be seen in cases of discrimination against certain categories of people or stereotypes. Some scholars have opined that prejudice emanates from how a person processes information in the course of making sense regarding their social environments (Burks et al., 2018). Stereotypes are overgeneralizations concerning how people endeavor to make sense of the world they live in. Sometimes stereotyping occurs subconsciously when the individual perpetuating it are not even aware that they are stereotyping. Though this view enhances the understanding on the inner workings of the brain in regard to prejudice, it is not entirely sufficient since it doesn’t take into account the crucial role of intergroup relations and influence of groups (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). These factors are likely to establish the attitude a person holds in a specific group since people tend to follow what other members of their group consider as a norm. Mental processes are not always independent since people are affected by the opinions of others within their environment. For example, a conflict between two groups will have a member of one group discriminating the other group.

Family Background and Educational Factors

Like in the case of other attitudes, prejudice is usually learnt through socialization. That is why, one’s family and exposure to particular contents by the media has an effect on one’s attitude (Powers & Socia, 2019). Meanwhile, there is no direct evidence linking family background to prejudiced attitudes. The evidence relating of a parent-to-child prejudice is not sufficient. This can be attributed to influences of peer groups which evidence has adduced to be strong. In addition, the society and the media’s contribution to prejudiced attitudes of people remains unproven. Statistics has backed up the persuasive argument that there is a relationship between prejudiced attitudes and educational attainment (Burks et al., 2018). The higher an individual’s education level, the less likely he or she will express prejudice. This is attributable to the fact that they have a better understanding of environmental factors and are even more self-aware.

Socio-Economic Explanations of Hate Crime

Intergroup Threats

Recent studies on hate crime is concentrated a lot more on explaining prejudice. A predominant consideration is the perceived threat that a person can pose to his or her in-group (Powers & Socia, 2019). These threats can be symbolic or realistic. The clear conflicts of interest are deemed realistic. They consist of factors like perceived competition for resources and positions within the in-group and out group (Hartigan & Wigdor, 1989). There are certain essential features, such as ethnicity and religious beliefs that informs whether or not a person will fit in a particular in-group. For instance, in the United States, disabled people and immigrants are discriminated against because of resources are scarce and they are seen as competition. Immigrants often are seen as sources of cheap labor which makes it easy for them to get employed compared to United States citizens. Disabled people on the other hand have easy access to welfare services. Realistic threats are indicative of territorial disputes since people are normally threatened by certain groups of people that are different from them.

Symbolic threats are synonymous with social identities, such as a group’s norms and values. For instance, when immigrants settle in a new place, they are viewed as a threat to the normal way of life in that community. This is because they usually import their values they acquired from their original communities into the new communities where they settle (Powers & Socia, 2019). That is why some members of that community at times showcase prejudiced attitudes towards new inhabitants. It is feared that they will bring about unwanted changes. Various researches have alluded to the fact that there is a connection between the perceived threat and the ensuing biased attitude (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). Hence, external threats are likely to have an effect on hate crime. For example, after past terrorist attacks, there has been a dramatic increase in Islamophobic hate crime was recorded in the United States. A connection between hate crime and economic threat becomes clear in situations where people feel immigrants are taking their jobs and they end up attacking them (Hartigan & Wigdor, 1989). Change in demography has also contributed immensely to an increase in hate crimes in the United States especially in cases where ethnic minorities move into places mainly inhabited by non-Hispanics.

Intergroup Emotions

The emotions individuals hold can be seen from what they view as a threat. Certain kinds of threats usually result in emotions that can influence certain kinds of behavior like hate crimes (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). For instance, when the central values of a group is threatened, the members of that particular group can feel disrespected. That is why they are likely to react violently to the people they feel are imposing a change on them in a bid to protect their territory. Another vital explanation is in regard to hate crime perpetrators who tend to feel threatened financially. Their emotions can cause an outrage that can then be directed towards the minority groups that are viewed to have caused them the socio-economic problems they are experiencing (Burks et al., 2018). Therefore, the best way to predict human behavior towards specific out-groups is the how they react with their emotions when tackling something they view as a threat. Emotional reactions can help in understanding the causes of hate crime as opposed to just considering their extreme feelings.

Structural Explanations of Hate Crime

Scholars argue that the best way to understand the causes of hate crime is by considering the societal structures (Cabeldue et al., 2018). Most of the time, crimes motivated by hate occur due to historical discrimination. There are certain groups of people who have been marginalized and segregated just because they are viewed to be different. (McCurn, 2018). The social hierarchy of a society is formed through the majority traits of race, gender, social class and even sexual orientation. Since there is a mix up in the society, the group with the biggest population is often the one that has power and controls the norms and values that the other minority groups have no choice but to abide with (McCurn, 2018). Their beliefs and features are seen as the ideal identity. For instance, in the United States, the majority are white, male, heterosexual, Christian. Hence, not being in the categories classified above has certain disadvantages that the majority group views as different. Some will view people who are different from them as a threat to their usual way of doing things and social values (Mulholland, 2013). These predominant ideas are sometimes even incorporated in processes and social structures.

Those who perpetrate hate crime are often people who are impacted by the dominant social expectations. That is why they act in a bid to protect their identity boundaries by perpetrating violence on people they feel are threatening their societal norms (Mulholland, 2013). By inflicting verbal violence those they view as different, they are basically telling them that they are unwelcome in their in-group. For instance, gay men are most times on the receiving end of verbal and even physical violence. Men whose physical features do not conform to the masculinity levels expected in men are constantly targeted simply because they are different. Those who perpetuate hate crime on gay men inflict violence to show their disgust. The stereotypes against different groups of people are hidden in plain sight behind the acts of violence meted on them.

Recommendations for Preventing Hate Crimes

To reduce hate crimes it is imperative that the general public should work together with law enforcers. There is a need to put in place a community policing approach. This can be done by partnering with the community to reduce hate crimes thereby enhancing the overall safety of all citizens. Partnering with the community will also ensure there is swift response by law enforcers to thwart some of these hate crime attacks. Although partnerships between members of the community and criminal justice actors can sometimes be viewed as giving members of the public law enforcement duties, this tactic can be quite helpful in curbing hate crimes (McCurn, 2018). The partnership should consist of people from the diverse groups that are targeted by hate crime perpetrators. The particular groups that advocate for the rights of minorities should also be part of this partnership.

Examples of partnerships fostering safety are the media, faith-based organizations, victim advocates, civic leaders, among other groups. This kind of partnership can work because hate crimes emanate from perceived intergroup threat. When the different groups join to work towards averting the incidences of hate crime within their communities, there will be a significant reduction in rates of hate crimes because the perpetrators of these crimes will be forced to restrain themselves from such acts (Hartigan & Wigdor, 1989). This is because hate crime perpetrators will be cognizant of the fact that even members of their in-group will not tolerate their acts of violence against minorities. This will have an influence on their attitudes, and even perhaps make them change how they act towards minority segments of the population.

Putting in place a community policing approach ensures that the partnerships are informed of likely occurrences of hate crimes before the perpetrators get a chance to act or in cases where the violence has started, it ensures it is stopped before it becomes too violent. Community policing approach gives responsibility to members of the community to prevent crime within their communities (Powers & Socia, 2019). This approach is backed by the view that a person is likely to adopt attitudes exhibited by members of their in-group. Therefore, if the community concentrates on protecting everyone without discriminating others  due to backgrounds, most people are likely to adopt this attitude so as not to feel left out.

Those charged with investigating hate crime should consider educating the public. They should understand the rates of hate crimes both internationally and locally. Data on hate crimes should be availed to the public to inform them of the nature of the problem and its effects on the nation. People should be persuaded to stop discrimination or else they will not stop. The Hate Crime Investigation Authority can teach the public on the need for peaceful co-existence and the essence of diversity in a society. The victims mostly seen as threatening members of a particular group. To change this view, people should be taught the benefits of having minority groups in their midst (Sinn & Hayes, 2018). For instance, they should learn that having people from different communities around can increase learning from different perspectives that may advance their careers or even improve their expertise. Immigrants also have new talents and skills that can change their financial status if properly harnessed. These skills and talents can improve their way of life of properly utilized.

There is mistrust between victims and law enforcers. Currently, those who have suffered from hate violence do not report because they do not trust law enforcement authorities (Powers & Socia, 2019). In fact, some victims are even afraid of law enforcers. That is why most of the time they seek a safety in community-based organizations which they consider safe for them. The Hate Crime Investigation Authority should workhand in hand with these organizations so as to offer assistance to victims of hate violence. They should also put in place measures that can be used to boost the confidence of victims on law enforcement agencies so as to win them over. When the victims are trust law enforcement agencies, they can give more information regarding hate crime occurrences that can lead to arrests of perpetrators and in the long term a reduction of violent crimes.

There is also a need to push for stricter penalties for the perpetrators of hate crimes. If stricter punishments are enacted, perpetrators of hate crime will be forced to think twice before inflicting violence on someone. For instance, the perpetrators of verbal hate crimes can made to pay hefty amounts in fines, while the prison sentences for perpetrators of physical hate crimes can be increased. This will discourage hate offences as nobody wants to lose huge amounts of money in paying for fines or worse serve a life sentence in prison. Even those within the in-group stop supporting hate crimes once they find out that they could be jailed.

In conclusion, hate crimes is a real problem that authorities in the United States must acknowledge and start dealing with. More importantly its increase in the last few years is a cause of concern for all citizens. It is time measures were put in place to curb this vice. The communities living in places where hate crimes are prevalent should be involved in containing this crime through creating awareness and education on the importance of diversity. Punitive penalties should also be enacted to discourage people from engaging in this vice.

References

Burks A. C., Henderson, C. E., Stroud, C. H., Crosby, J. W., Cramer, R. J., & Graham, J. (2018). Frequency, Nature, and Correlates of hate Crime Victimization Experiences in an Urban Sample of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Members. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(3), 402-420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515605298

Cabeldue, M. K., Cramer, R. J., Kehn, A., Crosby, J. W., & Anastasi, J. S. (2018). Measuring Attitudes About Hate: Development of the Hate Crime Beliefs Scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(23), 3656-3685. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516636391

Hartigan, J. A., & Wigdor, A. K. (1989). Fairness in Employment Testing : Validity Generalization, Minority Issues, and the General Aptitude Test Battery. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=14639&site=ehost-live

McCurn, A. S. (2018). The Grind : Black Women and Survival in the Inner City. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1933595&site=ehost-live

Mulholland, S. (2013). White Supremacist Groups and Hate Crime. Public Choice, 157(1/2), 91-113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-012-0045-7

Powers, R. A., & Socia, K. M. (2019). Racial Animosity, Adversary effect, and Hate Crime: Parsing Out Injuries in Intraracial, and Race-Based Offenses. Crime and Delinquency, 65(4), 447-473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718779566

Sinn, J. S., & Hayes, M. W. (2018). Is Political Conservatism Adaptive? Reinterpreting Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation as Evolved, Sociofunctional Strategies. Political Psychology, 39(5), 1123-1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12475