intersectional and inclusive narratives of prostitution in North America 

 intersectional and inclusive narratives of prostitution in North America

The main objective of this work entails using the material records surrounding prostitution in North America during the mid-to-late 19th century. The consideration of the archaeological findings is critical for constructing an inclusive narrative, which emphasizes intersectionality (as it relates to sex, class, and race), and agency for the women in question. The present narrative mainly focuses on the young white (Euro-American) women who would not face similar economic pressures and constraints from their community, as would be the case with a black or Chinese woman in the same profession. The development of an inclusive narrative would not only promote further historical analysis of sex work for a wide variety of women but also provide an opportunity for the introduction of more nuance into present findings of Euro-American prostitutes. The material culture drawn from the studied brothels encompasses a wide range of items supporting the biased and arguably dominant account of prostitution as a woeful profession and last alternative for the women that are incapable of supporting themselves because of the different societal and economic pressure.

Furthermore, there is a wide range of evidence in the material record supporting a more glamorous side to their lives exclusively presented as a lure to clients, generating a dichotomy. This very dichotomy of the material findings that this study investigates hopefully serves to reinforce the growing attention that the subject of prostitution has received in archaeological studies. Additionally, this study will bear a critique of the reliance on artifacts rather than gender and sexuality, alongside the absence of race when examining the lives of these women through excavations. This same critique, alongside the proposed framework, will provide significant assistance in improving many present analyses of material findings within the brothels that fall short in the hopes of addressing broader economic and social issues as it pertains to women presently.[1] These same shortcomings are somewhat prevalent within the archaeological discussions and studies concerning the present direction of the feminist movement. Therefore, this work will focus on addressing both to build intersectional and inclusive narratives of prostitution.

The narratives concerning sex work play a significant role in shaping the perception and treatment of sex workers, the formulation of law and policy on sex work, and the policing of sex work. Within contemporary society, the narratives concerning sex workers have shifted significantly over the past decades. In the past, sex workers were often construed as vectors of disease, moral degenerates, or criminals. However, presently, within the increasingly dominant victim discourse shapes narratives concerning sex work. The overly simplistic characterizations of prostitution as violence and conflation of human trafficking and consensual work have led to equally naive and harmful laws and policies. The archaeological findings thus bear the potential of providing critical information concerning the perception of sex workers in both the past and present.

Material Findings

From the numerous excavations in North America, many items have been amassed and altogether ensures the development of a very comprehensive view of the lives of the prostitutes during the 19th century. The various excavations all serve to demonstrate the extent to which the collection of luxurious household goods and imported foods, alongside the different items meant for contraception, motherhood, and health found in the brothels, point to the unique lifestyle not apparent to the clients and those outside the profession. It is this illusion built through materials to hide the second inner aspects of their lives that hinges, to be argued, mostly on whiteness, and thus, does not accurately serve in all discussions concerning sex workers then and now.

Simmons presents a wide range of findings and argues that it is the frequency, not necessarily the items themselves that are important for the identification of a brothel for archaeologists.[2] Some of the results from excavations on the western mining frontier at the time mainly include tokens or “brass checks,” that were not associated with most legitimate establishments, hair, jewelry, cosmetics, perfume bottles, and other fashion accessories. Except for the brass tokens, she considers these as part of a prostitute uniform that is somewhat critical for advertising and presenting certain types of women to potential clients. Furthermore, the amount of pharmaceutical drugs and other historical paraphernalia intended for use as birth control and venereal disease treatment found in excavations were, to a lesser extent, part of prostitute’s behind-the-scenes identity that was also necessary for health and self-care. Some of the items discovered whose purpose was self-care include abortifacients, suppositories, douches, and venereal disease cures that include The Boss, Naples Soap, Armenian Pills, Big G, Pineknot Bitters, Red Drops, and Bumsted’s Gleet Cure.[3] The occurrence of ill health or pregnancy by these women implied a potential loss of income that would be detrimental for some women charged with not only taking care of themselves but also their families.

Additionally, in an effort at giving agency to the long-gone voices, items for drug or alcohol consumption could arguably be placed in either category depending on the preference of an individual, which could not be found in the material record, unless through a journal or diary of some sort. Alcohol consumption was often regarded as a standard duty or privilege entailed in the experience of the average customer. These materials are missing from only those most economically burdened brothels servicing clients of a similar status. Chloroform, laudanum, codeine, opiates, alcohol, and tonics containing large percentages of alcohol were amongst the commonly used substances by the majority of the prostitutes to facilitate further relaxation of both the clients and themselves imaginably.[4] Artifacts offering more insight into the lives of the customers were less frequently found (buttons, cufflinks, and cigar butts). These items were likely to have been lost during a visit to a prostitute because of either carelessness or haste. Lastly, there exist a few records reporting of the material culture reflecting the prostitutes as mothers, as evident by children artifacts found in some excavations. The majority of the prostitutes had children but considering that some only worked at the brothel. In contrast, others opted to have the children live with relatives, only the residential prostitutes (usually on the more impoverished scale) would have more children’s artifacts suggestive of child residents. The findings reporting the presence of children are again left up to interpretation to allow for more agency in this narrative.[5]

Although the findings presented up to this point are mainly drawn from the western mining towns, the archaeology of the prostitution centers around the city, including the brothels almost exclusively.[6] Therefore, the findings neglect women who may have worked on a smaller scale or alone. Nonetheless, Rebecca Yamin’s analysis of the brothel in New York City’s Five Points also depicts a sharp contrast between their private and professional personals. The fancy dishes, expensive cuts of meat, elaborate glassware, clothing, and cosmetics are amongst some of the items that similarly fall into the category of items meant for luring clients and suggest a life free of toil and hardship.[7] Unlike the journal that would have been helpful in Simmons’s analysis, there was a prevalence of more personal items and souvenirs. These could probably be used as evidence of individual preferences to utilize better specific findings that previously, in the same agency for the women in question were left uncategorized.

Furthermore, the artifacts that include douches and syringes proceed to reveal the other side of the profession that the majority of the women kept hidden from clients. This serves as more justification for the pervasive concern with sexually transmitted illnesses and more effective forms of contraception in comparison to the offerings of the time that the majority of the women needed to keep earning money to support both themselves and their families. Likewise, one can also consider the findings that were present in numerous other households at the time that include decorative items, sewing paraphernalia, and clay pipes that were probably smoked in off-hours that suggests the world that the prostitutes created whenever they were not working.[8]

Adding to Simmons’s analysis of how the identification of brothels by the archaeologists besides using archival records, Voss dictates that archaeologists mainly identify brothels with some unique material characteristics.[9] These material characteristics include men’s buttons, an abundance of grooming and hygiene products, fancy women clothing, other small paraphernalia left behind, and expensive household goods and foreign foods.[10] Considering the importance associated with the presentation of an illusion of value for the commodity presented (female body) to men, Voss adds that the brothels vary significantly even if the chronological and geographical scope is narrowed, as was attempted in this work.

Also noteworthy is the emphasis on cleanliness in the daily activities of the prostitutes. Archaeologists have inferred this from the abundance of toothbrushes, syringes, medicine, hairbrushes, and hair combs discovered.[11] The vast collections found over the years points to overcompensation for some of the activities ignored by society. For the individuals living outside the margins of “polite society,” these items as having been presented purposed for self-medication and hygiene remained crucial for facilitating the maintenance of health that also correlated directly to their economic success as prostitutes.[12]

Moreover, the remains of skeletal infants are also common in and around the excavation in Five Points that has grand implications for the legality concerning prostitution and their varying circumstances as compared to other working-class women, then and presently. For reference, it is worth considering the modern debate around the reproductive rights of the women and laws established for punishing the sex workers, but not clients. The discovery of two well-preserved full-term babies and a fetus in a 19th-century privy shaft at 12 Orange Street in New York City’s Five Points demonstrate the concealment of either a stillbirth or some sort of infanticide. Likewise, other remains reflect the probable cover-up of a miscarriage or an induced abortion.[13] Considering the textual evidence concerning interactions with the brothel in question alongside the New York City law, this opens up comparisons between the legality of women and agency over their bodies, particularly in regards to abortion and procreation.[14]

Traditional Historical Narrative

The consideration of the concept concerning the context of 19th-century gender roles and how they intersected with race, age, and class as it pertains to familial expectations, it is possible to compare the household composition of prostitutes and other women in New York City alongside the functions of materials within the house and the purpose of some of the more luxurious findings for prostitutes searching for clients.[15] Additionally, the stuff left behind by some clients’ bears the potential of facilitating shedding of more light onto the men that patronized the brothels and the commodities they sought. The prostitutes often went to great lengths into creating the illusion of said fantasy, even when their lives did not serve as much fantasy fuel. Furthermore, as the brothels served as both work and home for the women, there is more opportunity for innovation in the interpretation of some findings considering that the complexities associated with the brothels as places for both the women and the clients.[16]

What this narrative misses

The absence of race in the discussion points to a modern-day issue concerning a feminist movement resisting intersectionality to the construction of stories around women. For instance, the majority of the Euro-American prostitutes, as suggested by Simmons, would often pretend to be French to create new value for themselves. Conversely, the majority of the Chinese prostitutes were often considered more as businesspersons within a patriarchal culture that seemed to place less value on the women in the family.

Still, in the wake of class awareness and division in the 19th century New York City, the excavation of Five Points brothel based in the working-class neighborhood serves as an essential case study concerning the extent to which illusion of grandeur through material means was necessary for the prostitutes to attract clients in the area. In this way, consumerism seemed to turn on its head as the women used the symbols that were considered necessary for idealizing the women of the time to attract men, more specifically, their money. The illusion of grandeur is further identified as a “wealthy, free, and female”.[17] The materials branding this identity also have more significant implications for agency, class, and womanhood presently. For instance, the controversial pink hats worn at the Women’s March on Washington in protest of the inauguration of Donald Trump drew praise and ire in equal measure. Appreciation for their pride in the female anatomy in a time where legislation dictates what the women are allowed to do with their bodies, alongside the ire for an unmistakable symbol of exclusion for the transgender women in the modern feminist movement. The symbols for praise and anger apparent in contemporary society are in sharp contrast to the case during the 19th century. Furthermore, a comparison of the portrayal of the women in the 19th century and presently reveals the efforts by the different organizations to make some of the practices that include prostitution that was kept from the public more public presently.

Additionally, the identification of brothels is somewhat based on the concept of collaboration amongst women, as most of the findings alone fail to implicate the presence of prostitution at an excavation. However, these distinctions more or less highlight the reasons why archaeology of prostitution in North America has become more prevalent within recent years. Historically, the marginalized groups have often been removed from narratives concerning the struggles of the working class in spite of economic inequality affecting women and people of color at most.

Foundation for critique

Applying the world-systems theory as an organizing framework for the study of prostitution, not just in the mining West, but also in the broader North American context, for its comprehensiveness concerning a capitalist interpretation, prostitution can be classified more uniquely as a form of informal labor for women.[18] The theory further facilitates understanding of how the work of the women prostitutes interplayed with the recognized job undertaken by men in the mines and other places as well. In this way, it is apparent that both parties proved capable of upholding and actively perpetuating exploitative system whereby even the women were able to reap substantial gains.

This interpretation mainly lends itself well as the basis for further critique of the current archaeological analysis as some of the assumptions dictate that: “class, ethnicity, and gender are active, shifting, and interacting constructions emphasized at assigning oneself or others as appropriate interactions, activities, or spaces and seeking to identify processes of identity formation through manipulated symbols and behaviors”.[19] The narrative supports the alterative interpretations presented in this discussion.

Alternative Interpretations

The proper analysis of the progress of narratives surrounding prostitutes necessitates the understanding of the diverse ways through which marginalized persons, especially women, are capable of regaining agency.[20] The analysis is essential, as it is capable of facilitating understanding of how the prostitutes were capable of providing for themselves at a time when the majority of the women could not and would not make independent decisions. Afterward, it may be possible to comprehend the change in perspective concerning prostitutes and their involvement in presumed crime and deviant behavior. Additionally, this understanding bears the potential of contributing to the illustration of the duality of the lives of the prostitutes in the 19th century and the impressions created through materials that aided in running their trade while also masking numerous other nuances of prostitution from the present archaeological studies.[21]

Implications for present-day feminism and legislation

The representation of sex workers within contemporary society, and to a lesser extent, human trafficking, has progressed in many different ways, although it still falls short on many issues. From the depictions of reality television stars that have transitioned from working as strippers to films and television shows seeking to humanize sex workers in the eyes of the larger audience, the majority of the more extensive discussions concerning the criminality of the occupation and the implications for some of today’s most vulnerable groups are still left unsaid. Even in the present society, in the majority of the magazines and advertising, the women are continually portrayed as slim, young, and with the beauty that meets the accepted standards. The women with these types of appearance are often associated with sex objects. In most cases, the media images of men and women are usually tailored to the preferences of the men.

For instance, considering the TV programs that often give information and reflect on the gender roles in real life, it is apparent that the images of women are usually distorted and unrealistic within these programs. The different types of entertainment programs within contemporary society often depict the women in a binary image. On the one hand, they are usually portrayed as decorative objects, while at the same time, they are described as passive individuals within the household and in marriage who are dependent on men for physical, emotional, and financial support.[22] Although today’s media increasingly associate femininity with powerful and independent women, the qualities informed by sexuality continue to play a critical role in shaping femininity. Besides the apparent propagation of the concept of feminism in contemporary society by the media, it is also evident that the marginalization of the vulnerable groups is significant. For instance, the majority of the prostitutes are perceived to be whites. At the same time, the more substantial percentage of women charged with solicitation often seem to identify as women of color.[23]

Conclusion

In the future, the narratives involving women can be made more inclusive through first understanding the existing relationship between race, sexuality, and class. Understanding the current relations between the diverse groups is critical as the majority of the women that fall under the marginalized identities for more than one classification often tend to have vastly different experiences than others who may be having only one or hold separate intersected identities. With the feminist movements shifting from a very white and family-centric focus to one arguing for inclusion and agency, looking into the past and the material findings left behind is somewhat critical for bridging the gap in lived experience for those seeking ally-ship or some form of representation. Additionally, from the discussion, it is apparent that the influence of the archaeological findings on the different perspectives of feminism is prominent.

[1] Crist, 2005, p.21

[2] Simmons, 1989, p.64

[3] Crist, 2005, p.21

[4] Yamin, 2015, p.871

[5] Gilfoyle, 2005, p.136

[6] Laskowski, 2011

[7] Gilfoyle, 2005, p.137

[8] Yamin, 2015, p.874

[9] Voss, 2008, p.326

[10] Laskowski, 2011

[11] Seifert, 1991, p.93

[12] Vermeer, 2006

[13] Vermeer, 2006

[14] Seifert, 1991, p.94

[15] Yamin, 2005, p.12

[16] Butler, Tim and Paul Watt. 2007, p.12

[17] Yamin, 2005, p.12

[18] Butler, Tim and Paul Watt. 2007, p.13

[19] Simmons, 1989, p.65

[20] Butler, Tim and Paul Watt. 2007, p.13

[21] Butler, Tim and Paul Watt. 2007, p.14

[22] Gilfoyle, 2005, p.134

[23] Gilfoyle, 2005, p.134