Neurobiological Underpinnings Associated to Human Brain:

Neurobiological Underpinnings Associated to Human Brain:

Introduction

Neurobiological underpinnings knowledge is key for studying and knowing the way the human brain develops with time. As the brain develops, it connects with other systems in the body like the immune system, the central nervous system plus other external body signals in the body of an infant. As the baby develops, the immune system programs the changes that end up persisting over time, as the child grows. There are several changes occurring in the brain, body cells, and the surrounding environment in which the child grows. This report explores the effects of prenatal, maternal nutrition and breastfeeding on growth and development of the child.

The prenatal period is most significant because, there are intra-uterine exposures which modulate the development course, and can lead to permanent effects on the infant. Programming at this period can change the growth and way of functioning of organs, which will be having great impacts in the adult life of the infant. The infant’s immune system development, plus the mother’s system interaction will be explored to give a clear picture of the nutrition impact on the entire body systems. Some of these interactions may lead to growth disorders, resilience, or vulnerabilities in the immune systems. A clear understanding of the interactions could assist in early interventions and preventive measures.

Effects of nutrition and maternal prenatal breastfeeding on growth

During the pregnancy period, the maternal and fetal immune systems share information in a bi-directional way. Reactions of the maternal immune system with other protective mechanisms play a critical role in maintaining the pregnancy, the fetus, and balance in the maternal immunocompetence. Controlled responses yield positive results in the fetal body system and its development. The interactions depend on the antigen recognition coming from the placental and paternal genomes. The placenta is dominantly the source of antigens and growth of cells during pregnancy. The placental villi are responsible for the circulation of maternal blood, which contains food nutrients and other essential components for the development of the fetus. The villi come to contact with placental antigens that are directly shed into the maternal circulation to regulate maternal immune responses.

Past studies focused on the quantity and qualities of the milk produced by human breasts during lactation, and focus was not on determining the effects of lactation on maternal health, or the nutritional effects during that period. Nutritional needs during pregnancy are critical in the development of the fetus, as the weight doubles between the fourth and sixth month of pregnancy. After birth, the changes in the body of the infant are drastic, as the body develops and grows, there is more demand for specific diets to assist its growth. Failure of which might lead to disabilities and other health disorders that the fetus will experience. There has been a presence of maternal cells or DNA in the fetus long after birth, and it has been linked with several disorders as the infant grows. Such disorders include sclerosis, juvenile dermatomyositis, infant diabetes, among other disorders which result from the linkage of mother-to-child body systems.

Immunoregulatory Mechanisms

The maternal immunoregulatory mechanism is made of the bi-directional relationship of the fetal-maternal systems, which produces cytokines product.  Cytokines promote the blastocyst implantation and the growth of the placenta, which assists in nutrient transfer from the mother to the fetus. Imbalances cause fetal resorption, tumour production, and could result in spontaneous abortion. Immunity of the cell should not decrease during pregnancy development and growth of the fetus, and the regulation of cell balance is critical in the development of immunity on the infant. The fetal immune system develops and responds to external antigens, like vaccines or infections in different ways, depending on the transferred antigens from the mother. If the antigens are not strong enough to fight infections, there is a likelihood of improper growth or organ response in the body of the infant.

Maternal nutrition plays a more significant role in regulating the duration of postpartum amenorrhea. Observational data indicate a linkage between poor maternal nutrition to prolonged postpartum amenorrhea. There are also differences between infant suckling characteristics of well-nourished women and the poorly-nourished ones. The period of amenorrhea extension could be a function of milk characteristics connected to maternal nutrition. The volume, composition, and rate of flow could affect the infant breastfeeding behavior-change. The way the mother interacts with the born child, through the frequency, duration, or time of breastfeeding may change due to the availability of food. The brain of an infant is programmed to follow a certain pattern or flow of things. When these patterns are altered due to external factors like food-shortages may cause the brain to fail to develop fully in a typical way.

Growth and maturation of the infant’s immune system begin early at conception, infancy, until childhood. Sometimes the immune system becomes vulnerable, due to environmental stress, like malnutrition, contamination, inadequate supply of basic nutrients. It then develops tolerance mechanisms during this growth period, resulting in distinct features that protect the damage of key body organs and systems in the infant. What maintains homeostasis tissue by regulating apoptosis epidermal cell growth is T-cells, which is present in fetal subpopulations. Fetal and neonatal T-cell plus B-cells show auto-reactive antigen receptors which can cross-react with peptides coming to form unrelated antigens. The results could be devastating as the child grows, failing to develop essential organs of the body. Some key processes like digestion, blood circulation, and nervous system may experience difficulties during this phase of development. The brain could fail to detect or perceive the basic functions of other body organs.

The Fetal Immune System

The fetal immune system is connected to the central nervous system, communicating with other organs of the body in a bi-directional manner. The central nervous system works through neuronal and hormonal pathways, controlling the immune system of the infant, while the latter affects the central nervous system through local or peripheral processes. Molecules like antibodies could reach the brain because the blood-brain barrier is not well developed, increasing cell activation, trauma, infections, or stress to the infant. The brain suffers the risks of exposure to the environmental stimuli, which affects the neurodevelopment and overall growth of the infant.

The maternal antibodies passed to the fetus during pregnancy and the first weeks of breastfeeding after birth, have a significant role in providing passive immunity to the child. If there are pathogens, and autoantibodies are targeting the central nervous system, the results could be deleterious, and long-lasting. The imbalance between t pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines will result in abnormal brain development and higher risks of neurodevelopment, which further increase the risks of schizophrenia and autism. Higher levels of cytokines resulting from maternal immune activation can induce brain damages, abnormal brain growth, and abnormal behavioral development.

Impact on Maternal Nutrition Imbalances

The impact of maternal and nutrition on the growth and development of the immune system and neurodevelopment can be altered by different mechanisms, resulting in later risks of diseases, disabilities, and underdevelopment of body organs. Therefore, adequate nutrition is essential for establishing a functional immune system through typical organogenesis and growth. Secretion of secretory products, acute proteins, and the immune cell-proliferation relies on proper nutrition and constant supply of nutrients. During pregnancy, malnutrition prevents placentation, leading to changes in the size, morphology, and flow of blood in the placenta, between the mother and fetus. The nutrient supply is reduced, altered and the fetus brain fails to develop normally. Its’ brain programming is also affected and may result in both short- and long-term effects on the development and morbidity of the infant. Maternal malnutrition will interfere with the quality and quantity of immune factors passed from the mother to the infant through the placenta, prenatally, and through breastfeeding, postnatally. Mothers milk contain antibodies which form the mucosal immune system, responsible for controlling epithelial colonization of micro-organisms. It also prevents the penetration of harmful substances to the infant’s body. Early exposure to contaminants could cause irreversible damages to the infant, and impede proper growth and development.

Conclusion

Proper programming during the early stages of growth and development of an infant can result in significant changes in the immune system and persist for an extended period altering growth and development progress. There is a need for pregnant mothers to receive an adequate and continuous supply of essential nutrients for proper growth of their infants. Nutrients range from the basic carbohydrates, vitamins, proteins, to the other minor ones like calcium, zinc, among others. A controlled maternal immune system plays a positive role in fetal growth, while disruption affects the central nervous system through local or peripheral processes. The fetal system is generally vulnerable and needs protection from external damaging factors resulting from prenatal maternal nutrition and breastfeeding. Further scientific research can also assist in solving the real questions.