Species Testing

Species Testing

In Italy, when a poacher had snared a wild boar sow and knifed it to death, DNA molecular techniques were used for forensic investigation. The conservation officers retrieved the animal at the scene, and a knife that was recovered from the suspect’s home was confiscated (Lorenzini 218). Bloodstains on the knife revealed that the blood was of a non-domestic form of Sus Scrofa (Lorenzini 221). Further analysis showed that the stains were of the same species as the poached boar. Forensic science was used in this case for species identification, and the suspect was convicted for poaching and cruelty to animals. The case in Italy is one of the many instances in which species identification (although sparingly used) has helped in determining the genetic make-up of animals. The case was reminiscent of the underlying issues that forensic scientists face in recognizing poached wild animals.

Hunting of wildlife is a major problem in the global society, which needs better methods to mitigate the detrimental effects of poaching. The Black Rhino is one of the animals faced by extinction due to the illegal trade in the animals’ skin and tusks, which has been prevalent in the global society. Developing and third world countries are mainly affected by these problems because of the lack of proper policies and infrastructure to control illegal trade in animals (Staats et al. 4617). While the global society has revamped its efforts in addressing the problem, major issues are yet to be addressed. The lack of proper forensic science methods in identifying the animals and reflecting on the measures developed is one of the significant problems experienced. DNA testing is among the methods that have opened up the possibility of examining trace material from such cases (Staats et al. 4624). There are increasing cases evident across the global community of the changing face of species identification. Species identification helps in curbing the problems through having more convictions and making a proper analysis of the impacts of poaching in the global community. The difficulty has majorly been on the capacity to identify a certain species and establish if biological material can confidently be assigned to a particular person (Staats et al. 4620). Dynamics point to how important the measures developed to align with the specific measures and controls are needed in the system. Forensic science is imperative in fighting wildlife crime in society, underlining the need to accentuate the measures across the global society.

Species identification is sparingly used in the global community due to the number of cases that require the system worldwide. Most of the instances involve individuals who are arrested after poaching or other issues mainly being identified in the act. In developing countries, the lack of proper structures and policies make it difficult to curb the problem. The global society pushes for better methods of identification, especially for animals whose skin or tusk cannot be indeed defined (Staats et al. 4623). Using species identification has been cited as potent in changing the scope and methods that are needed in the structures developed. Morphological and microscopy in the natural setting underline the importance of creating specific patterns required in society. Aligning the technological methods in species identification is, therefore, imperative in the global society.

DNA-based technologies are used in species identification of animals. DNA-testing has made it possible to recognize every specimen with accuracy. DNA profiling helps in identifying species that may be difficult to assign specific identities through microscopy ((Staats et al. 4627). This main model is critical in determining and accentuating the main measures used in species identification. Mitochondrial genome testing is one of the key methods in DNA typing used in species testing. Mitochondrial genome typing is defined as the most effective approach due to the underlying measures that are described in the procedures explained. The underlying questions are modeled on the critical aspects and scope that the measures developed. Mammalian species can be defined through the mitochondrial genome phenotype that is used in forensic science to compare animal species.

Mitochondrial DNA loci are mainly used because there is no recombination. mtDNA is, therefore, employed, especially in mapping all maternal descendants since they have the same mitochondrial DNA sequence (Staats et al. 4625). Critical patterns and mutations may affect the loci, but in most cases, the mtDNA is not changed. The method, thus, reduces the incidence of errors in testing for the molecular combinations and is deemed as the most effective in genome mapping. No error reading enzymes in the mitochondria assist in defining correct DNA bases added incorrectly (Staats et al. 4621). Specific questions are modeled on the ability to develop better scope and measures that are essential in defining each species. In species identification, the pertinent models are developed depending on defining features contextualized in the systems accordingly. Each aspect is modeled on the capacity to create proper tools essential in the replication of nuclear DNA.

Multiple copies of mitochondrial DNA per cell are among the major advantages of employing mtDNA in species identification. Compared to nuclear DNA, DNA has more than two copies, which helps in accurately developing and assigning each aspect to the individual structure developed. Protein coating that protects the mtDNA assists in ensuring that the evidence does not degrade after collection. Species identification is modeled on the ability to establish the animals’ individual features and assess the degree of relatedness and divergence. Taxonomic and phylogenetic studies are primarily found on the mitochondrial genome that is specific to the measures developed—variability of the species and the underlying measures that are specific to the divergence times via molecular clocks. The locus used in taxonomic and phylogenetic studies is modeled on cytochrome b, which occurs in most nuclear composition (Staats et al. 4629). Cytochrome b is essential in creating specific parts and aids in distinguishing the models that are individually creative in underlining the needed measures essential in the tools developed. Each model was highlighted explicitly by accentuating the controls and measures designed in the systems used.

As is evident from the Italian case study, the mtDNA is a potent tool in overcoming the illegal wildlife animal trade in the global society. Previous methods have not been effective in developing the specific measures necessary in creating the best tools in the global society. While the new techniques have changed the scope established, the best practices essential in improving the dynamics and controls needed should be formed. In the long-run, countries should invest more in DNA analysis and other methods necessary for creating robust tools and processes required across the systems designed accordingly. It is imperative to develop and actualize the systems and controls that are matched through the potent measures and content created. Species identification offers new models essential in changing the war against illegal animal trade. An increase in the number of convictions and proper analysis of the cases will be effective in instituting change in the systems underlined. The scope of the research should be contextualized on the underlining tools and measures developed explicitly across the systems.

In forensic science, immune-diffusion antigen-antibody reactions and hair comparisons are also used in the analysis. Antigen-antibody reactions are mainly modeled on the ability to draw individual opinions based on the results (Staats et al. 4626). Opinion based results in forensic science are not favorable since the accuracy of data should be unbiased and not opinionated. Using the immunodiffusion method requires the utilization of a barcode of life initiative to sequence the section of DNA for the Cytochrome Oxidase mitochondria. In the tests above, cytochrome b was used in analyzing the species. Sequencing different species requires the employment of various forensic tests that map out tenets essential in inculcating positive means in the test results. Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) offers forensic scientists a marker that can be used to map out different species through those already stored in the database (Staats et al. 4620). The main problem is that the database is not rich enough in terms of the number of species and characteristics that are stored. There is a need for better models that are specifically matched and aligned to the required processes and controls needed. Technology in the forensic laboratory is vital in defining and actualizing the main methods when distinguishing between different species as identified in this case.

Hair comparison analysis is also one of the most effective methods in species identification. The hair on animals has a distinctive marker that can be used by forensic labs to recognize the species. While using hair as one of the tags for identification, tone should ensure that the database has all the characteristics identified. Hair comparison analysis highly relies on the database as is the case with the immunodiffusion antigen-antibody reactions (Staats et al. 4625). The two distinctively underline the importance of developing the best practices and highlighting the need to accentuate and develop a set of structures that are necessary across the social structures created accordingly. The steps in species identification should be modeled on DNA based wildlife forensics using different forensic applications that are sourced in the database. The dynamics point to the importance of actualizing all the necessary measures and allowing for positive models to be mapped in integrating positive means needed. Forensic applications and recommendations should be contextualized on the set basis and identified tools that are effectively modeled in forensic science.

Components of Blood that are Forensically Significant

The forensically significant components of blood are the Red Blood Cells (RBC) and Serum. Red blood cells contain a considerable amount of protein hemoglobin, which has antigens in the blood. RBC help in defining the characteristics and differentiating between different compositions when analyzing the blood in a crime scene. Antigens can be used in distinguishing between the genes and identifying the blood on a case by case basis. RBCs are, therefore, important, especially in the identification of an individual crime scene and blood patterns. Analysis of RBCs helps in outlining the individual characteristics of a person or animal in this case. The genes can be used in accurately identifying the blood and assigning it to a specific person. Forensic analysis is mainly hinged on its ability to define the characteristics of a crime scene precisely. Investigations are modeled on the capacity to determine and actualize the measures that are characteristically developed in the scope of the case. Each dynamic is potent in describing the measures and controls needed in establishing the best form of analysis on a case by case basis.

Red blood cells are also crucial in differentiating between human blood and animal blood. The distribution of glucose in the red blood cells is essential in distinguishing the species. Red blood cells differ much among species, underlining the importance of developing the best structures necessary in inculcating positive models across society. Humans and animals have a different packed volume that can be tracked to determine the specific blood count in humans. In the analysis, the blood from humans and animals can be located in a scene of the crime. Although in forensics further study of the blood may be conducted to identify the species, red blood cells are essential in making out the composition.

The serum, on the other hand, is a protein-rich liquid that separates when blood coagulates. In forensics, the serum is essential since most of the cases are identified hours after the crime has been committed. Developing the best practices necessary in aligning with the individual conditions is imperative in determining the blood and assigning critical aspects to the case. The serum is important in every case, especially after the coagulation of blood, as each aspect can be developed explicitly in forensic science. In species identification, the serum can be used to assign the specific element of blood to a species. Since the serum contains protein, the coagulated blood can be forensically analyzed for the best results to be identified in each case.

While serum and RBCs are the most important blood components in a crime scene, other elements can be used. One of the main ingredients is platelets that help in blood clotting. In a crime scene, platelets count can be used in identifying a criminal and their characteristics. This strategy is particularly effective if one has a condition that makes them have low platelets count in their bodies. Platelet count is used in ensuring that forensic scientists can assign an individual with a certain crime or crime scene. Conventional measures may, however, be ineffective in collecting the blood samples hence the use of the RBCs and serum. The White Blood Cells can also be used as a blood component. WBCs can be used to identify immune-deficient conditions that individuals may suffer from. In forensic science, different aspects of the blood may be used to assign the component to an individual. WBCs count in the body, as well as the immune system that can be tracked from the sample, is critical in differentiating individuals, especially in a crime scene. Blood components should be forensically modeled, with the pertinent methods being implemented to enhance the qualities and features necessary in gaining more control over the condition. Blood components, including plasma, are all essential in forensics. However, the ability of genetic mapping and drawing the most important components in the blood necessitates the use of different features vital in accentuating the main methods identified. Forensic science is modeled on the accuracy, requiring the features needed to be informed on the underlying questions and tools crucial in implementing the best approaches of care.

Phenotypic Frequencies

Phenotypic frequencies are used in assigning blood types to each individual depending on the characteristics of the blood type. The features are essential in gene mapping, as well as ensuring that people can be given proper care based on an individual’s attributes. The method was developed in the early 20th century and has since been widely used globally to assign different cases to a specific blood type. The technique is one of the most effective approaches in gene mapping and helps in ensuring that one gets blood that aligns with the characteristic in their blood. Depending on the race, as well as other features of an individual, the blood type and phenotypic frequencies may differ considerably: B + 6%, CA + 1.25%, SUBTYPE 2-1 26.3%, ADA subtype 1+ 45.2%, AK subtype 2+ 0.05% and PGM subtype 1+28.3%.

The percentages reflect the differences between the individual blood groups, with each having positive and negative identities in every group.

Phenotypic frequencies are essential in the creation of donor data banks of indigenous cell panels providing antigen-negative compatible blood to patients. Percentages for the compatible antibodies are underlined through analyzing the data and offering necessary alloantibodies for patients in every case. It is important in treatment where huge amounts of blood are required as it mirrors individuals’ structures that are adequately developed. The underlying issues are connected to an overall contextual basis that is critical in developing the blood panels and giving blood to the right individual in the hospital. In forensic science, the same can be used in identifying paternity and gene mapping. Phenotypic frequencies are essential in highlighting different features that can be drawn from the blood components. All the necessary factors are developed, which maps the required structural basis in identifying characteristic features in forensic science. The make-up of antibodies and the conventional tools that are deemed necessary in the systems assigned are thereby characteristically developed. This essential approach inculcates the necessary features and controls as potent to changing and actualizing the set tools developed across the system. Phenotypic frequencies are potent in forensic science and other disciplines. However, the application in healthcare makes it critical in society.