The sultans Abdülmecit II and Abdülaziz

The sultans Abdülmecit II and Abdülaziz

Introduction

Tanzimat was a reform period in the Ottoman Empire, which was implemented between 1830 and 1870. Tanzimat was not aimed at radical transformation but to modernize and consolidate the political and social aspects of the Ottoman Empire. The Tanzimat reforms involved various economic, educational, and political reforms. The rulers of the Empire hoped that these reforms would make the Ottoman Empire more powerful and thus will stop its failure. For the Ottoman Empire, Tanzimat involved embracing the models of Western countries as well as their practices to be at the same level as them and, if possible, compete with those nations. The rulers were convinced that the Tanzimat would make the Empire have equal power as the countries from the West, and therefore there will be no opportunity to be colonized by the western countries. Unfortunately, in the 19th Century, a significant section of the universe had already been colonized by France and Britain. Ottoman Empire had provided a partial implementation of the Tanzimat reforms, but this did not stop the failure of the Ottoman Empire.

At the start of the 18th Century, the Ottoman Empire could be fairly considered powerful as some of the nations from the West. However, in the mid of this century, there was a decline in the power of the Ottoman Turks, and they could no longer compare the military power of countries such as the Hapsburg Empire and Russia. In the wars that followed, the armies of the Empire, which was known as the invincible, were defeated continuously, and the rulers of the Empire lost some territory to their adversaries. The invaders from the Christian religion were slowly penetrating the Empire and which was a significant threat to the survival of the Empire. It was an important indication that the strength of the military of the Ottoman was marginalized, and there was less practice of the ancient economic structures. The system of economy which had served the Empire of Ottoman in the 18th Century had reduced its effect since the 15th Century, that is, the time it was adopted. The economy in Ottoman was frail, and it could have no chance to compete with the European countries, which had a strong backbone of the economy, which was supported by the revolutions in the Industries. The rulers of the Empire gained knowledge that there was a need to launch an economic revolution, which will be supported by comprehensive political and legal reforms. After a discussion, the rulers came to a common decision that the Ottoman Empire needed to be modernized to comply with the various challenges at that period. The paper will focus on the differences in rulers when they controlled Tanzimat. It will achieve this by discussing the various rulers of the Empire who include the sultans Abdülmecit, Mustafa Reşid Paşa, Ali Paşa, and Fuad Paşa.

The sultans Abdülmecit II and Abdülaziz

One of the foremost Tanzimat reforms was the economic reforms. As mentioned earlier, the Ottoman Empire was served by an economic system that was introduced back in the 15th Century. Islamic perspectives on the economy greatly influenced this system. This influence was very much against profit motive and instead promoted protectionism and state intervention. It was clear to the Sultan that there was an urgent need to liberalize the economy since this was the only way the Ottoman Empire would generate sufficient capital to compete with European countries. Some of the financial reforms which were advocated by the Sultan included a new system of taxation, right to own properties (as private members of the country), free trade, and obliteration of guilds. The leadership of the Sultan made the Empire introduce a new banking system, despite the caution from religion officials that the banks should not charge any interest on loans or usury since this was against the Koran teachings. The Sultan ensured there were free trade and no trade barriers in all parts of the Empire (even the Pagans were now freely allowed to trade in the Ottoman Empire). Also, the Sultan put the focus on the abandoned protectionism in the Empire.

The Sultan came to realize that the proper way of implementing secular projects was to launch courts that will play the role of overseeing economic regulation. At around 1850, Sultan influenced the issuance of the Napoleonic Trade Laws in the Empire. The laws of Islam continued to cover Sharia laws, both in the urban areas and in villages. However, they faced a significant challenge when they were faced with cases involving new economic changes. Sultan hoped that these changes would strengthen the economy of the Empire. The new legal changes were adopted from the Western countries’ model. This was simply because the entire Sultan wanted was to be powerful as European nations, and therefore he thought doing everything the same way Europeans did will make him realize his dreams.

On the political front, Sultan thought that a new style of exercising authority would create a way for strategies to acquire and maintain power where possible. Political relationships were to be balanced and controlled through recommended procedures and defined mechanisms instead of the customary power links. Sultan had the hopes that the new political reforms will change the informal power of tribal leaders in the urban areas of the Empire. This turned out to be more confusing and unsatisfying since, in some regions, new political arrangements displaced the ancient ones. In others, the ancient institutions rebelled, remained politically firm, and had to co-exist with the new ones. Under the new Political reforms, the power of the Sultan will also be restricted as he will be required to consult with other officials before making any decision. There were even efforts to begin a multi-party political system. The Empire began to do centralization of power to ensure the reforms are put in place regardless of the disgruntled remarks from the clergy sector.

In the education sector, Sultan suggested that an elaborate system of education was essential for the effective functioning of the reforms. In 1847, the Education Ministry was established, and its main goal was to manage education in the Empire. There was significant progress in secondary and higher education. There was the introduction of Universities that used the French style and trained many of the leading bureaucrats that served the nation in the future generations.

Mustafa Resid Pasha

Resid was a diplomat and a statesman in Ottoman who was referred to as the Tanzimat’s chief architect. He was the father of the Tanzimat reforms since he played essential roles in the implementation of these reforms in the Empire. At the Tanzimat period, he was the Grand Vizier for six times and the Foreign minister several times. Resid believed that the existence of the Ottoman was based on various pillars, which are the Osman dynasty, Islam, the Ottoman government (hukument), and Istanbul, capital existence. Resid claimed that the Ottoman Empire lacks the necessary military power to do territory integrity maintenance of the state. He continued and emphasized that it is the geographical location of the Empire, which shall help preserve that integrity. According to him, the Empire must have a proper administration since the foreign countries will not leave the Empire at peace. The city is indivisible, but the states are aspiring to possess Constantinople, which indicates that if the Empire does not take appropriate steps to have a proper administration, the foreign countries will be willing to have a joint administration, which is a form of colonialization.

After the reading of Gulhane Hatti- Sherif, Resid gave the Sultan two propositions about the Meclis-I Vala. It is the Judicial Ordinances Supreme Council, which became the law on 8th December 1839. The first proposal put forward by Resid aimed at combining the Dar-z Şura-Yz Bab-z Âli with Meclis-i Vâlâ. The Dar-z Şura-Yz Bab-z Âli was responsible for advising the Foreign Minister Office, and connecting the two entities will eliminate contradictions by ensuring that there is one institution that encourages the Sublime Porte. Also, the Meclis-i Vâlâ will be a compound of the Sublime Porte, which will indicate the significant influence the reformers of the Tanzimat will have in the new legislature drafting. In 1841, Resid played another critical role in renaming the new army to Asakir-i Nizamiye-i Şihane from the Janissaries after their 1826 fall. Resid is a believer in justice, which made him create a new justice court. Furthermore, he established a commerce ministry, which he believed that it would enhance the Empire’s foreign trade. The newly formed court by Resid will be dealing with commercial conflicts. He then built a new commercial code that dealt with bills of exchange, partnerships, and bankruptcies, which resembled the French models. Resid argued that there is no pertinence of Islam to the codes, which made him be removed from the Foreign Minister office.

The Tanzimat reforms were at the peak during the first two terms of Resid as Grand Vizier starting in 1846. The main focus of Resid creates liberal economic policies that create commercial laws and courts, which will be based on the models of French and also, abolish the slave trade and slavery in all parts of the Empire. He was also aiming at enhancing the education system in the Empire. Resid formed the Meclis-i Maarif in 1846. It was an educational committee that was aiming at reducing the effect on the education of the ulema, which creates a secular learning system. In the year 1847, the Sublime Porte, created by Resid, established some schools at the middle level and several teachers’ schools. In 1852, he launched, Endjümen-i Daniş, a science academy which was a French model academy. The primary purpose of Resid creating these institutions was to conglomerate text extension that could be used after the formation of Ottoman University. Also, he had the idea of simplifying the Turkish language, as evident in his Sciences Academy writings. He suggests that there is the placement of insistencies on the drafting of technological and scientific books, which will be written in an easy language that suits the needs of many people and provide means of completing and widening the instructions. Resid ordered for the development of the Hazine-Yi Ewraḳ in 1846, which was a Sublime Porte archival system.

Ali Pasa

Ali was a prominent statesman in Ottoman during the period of Tanzimat. He is best referred to as the 1856 Ottoman Reform Edict architect and for his essential duty in the 1856 Paris Treaty that marked the end of the Crimean War. He is considered to as an able statesman and a deft and, most of the time, credited with the prevention of an early empire’s break- up. According to Ali, the best reform of modernizing the Empire is to advocate for a western-style, which will include state secularization and civil liberties improvements. He was working to pacify the movements of the nationalist and also fending off aggressors from foreign countries who were trying to weaken the control of the Ottoman Empire. He suggested an Ottoman nationalism which can replace the distinct religious and ethnic loyalties. It indicates that Ali was an individual who believes in equal treatment of all people regardless of their racial differences. In the lifetime of Ali, he became the Foreign Affair Minister seven times and Grand Vizier for five times. In the year 1851, he was awarded Order of the Red Eagle (first class).

Ali played an essential role in the Treaty of Paris in 1856. Some countries such as France, England, and Sardinia had intervened in the Crimean War in the Empire. The Paris Treaty was formulated and implemented to save the Ottoman Empire from Russia. The Empire was facing pressure from the outside to avoid discrimination of people and treat all individuals equally without considering their religion. As a way of responding to this issue, Ali formulated the 1856 Hatt-i Humayun reform edict. In this reform, Ali claimed that all people are equal before the law. Also, it opened all subjects’ civic offices, promised to enhance the security of property and life of the non- Muslims and guaranteed that people will not be forced to join a religion. In turn, the number of Christian missionaries increased in the Ottoman Empire. It created worries that some Muslims will change their religion to Christianity and move out of the army. As a way of responding to this worry, Ali came up with a policy that did not allow conversion. Therefore, any Muslim who will change his religion to Christianity will be arrested, and strict actions were taken against him. The new freedoms which were advocated by Ali were not popular with some members of the non- Muslim in the Empire, for instance, some Christians were not happy for being treated similarly with the Jews.

He constantly battled with Sultan on the issue of Grand Vezir powers. Ali and Sultan disagreed on various issues, such as the appointments ministers, secretaries, and attendants. Ali removed individuals who disagreed with him politically like Young Ottomans. Young Ottomans did not agree with the Tanzimat reforms claiming that it was a way of pandering to the European demands in sharia law expense. On the other hand, Ali was advocating for equal treatment of all people regardless of their religion or ethnicity to make the Empire more stable. Young Ottomans published in the newspaper about his views of not supporting the Tanzimat, but Ali banished and closed their newspapers.

Mehmed Fuad Pasha

He was a statesman and an administrator in the Ottoman. Faud is remembered for his significant role in the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire in the mid of the 19th Century. He served various in various posts, which include as a Grand Vizier two times. He is one of the most influential individuals in the Ottman Empire and was in favor of the civil codes of the French in the new civil courts, which were established in 1868. According to Faud, there was the need to keep the Empire as a monarchy by rejecting the concepts of being restricted by the legislature or the constitution. In most cases, he conflicted with some liberal intellectuals such as Ibrahim Sinasi, Ziya Pasha, and Namik Kemal over this issue.

Faud played a vital role in the Tanzimat reforms. He argues that his main goals were to enhance reforms, powers fend off, and rebellion forestalling. Faud was aiming at increasing the efforts of the Ottoman Empire towards European acceptance and westernization. During his period, there was the opening of western schools to train bureaucrat’s positions for future government. Faud facilitated the establishment of councils of education, justice, and state and provincial councils who represented social and religious groups living within the Empire’s boundaries. Faud believed that the reforms of Tanzimat would find the Empire’s salvation by creating a good relationship among the individuals who have equal rights regardless of their social or religious differences. However, as a way of creating a modern Ottoman Empire image, Faud had the belief that by exposing the non- Muslims people to equal rights in the Empire, it would reduce their separatist and nationalist tendencies. According to him, an Ottomanism sense was needed to save that Empire. The Ottomans could unite the Muslims, Christians, and the Jews to the nationality of the Ottoman. Being the chairman of the Tanzimat council, Faud enhanced the process of achieving centralization in the Empire. Faud reformed the provincial and financial challenges that faced the Empire. He identified the taxation as one of the financial systems that needed reforms, and all the individuals in the Empire were given a certificate of tax compliance. It shows that Faud was ready to transform the Ottoman Empire into higher levels.

Conclusion

Tanzimat was a reform period in the Ottoman Empire, which was implemented between 1830 and 1870. The Tanzimat reforms involved various economic, educational, and political reforms. The rulers of the Empire hoped that these reforms would make the Ottoman Empire more powerful and thus will stop its failure. The Ottoman Empire was reasonably considered as powerful as some of the nations from the West. However, there was a decline in the power of the Ottoman Turks, and they could no longer compare the military power of western countries. There was a need to reform this issue which brought about Tanzimat. Various rulers played essential roles and duties in the Tanzimat. Some of these Ottoman rulers in the Tanzimat period are; the sultans Abdülmecit II and Abdülaziz, Mehmed Fuad Pasha, Ali Pasa, and Mustafa Resid Pasha. These rulers had their differences, but they all aimed at promoting the welfare of the Ottoman Empire.